SPEAK TELL SAY
1.指”說話的本能”時用speak與talk均可The baby is learning to talk (or speak).2.詢問對方懂不懂某種語言用speak，如果指主詞懂得或使用某種語言通常用speak，但也可以用talk表示”不怎麼好”的含義Do you speak English?They talk English together for practice.3.指主詞跟某人說話時用speak和talk均可，以後者比較通俗Can I talk to you for a few minutes about your sister?4.指彼此互相交談時用talk，若只是一人獨講或因故而不能講，用speakWhat are you talking about?5.正式發表演說用speakThe President will speak on TV tonight.6.傳達別人(或自己)所說的話時用say或tell，但二者使用的時機不同（1）直接敘述之前別無其他受詞時，用tellShe said, ”What do you want me to do?”（2）直接敘述裡若是命令句或敘述句，且引號之前另有某人做間接受詞時，用tell；也可用say to somebodyI told them (or I said to them), “I’ve never seen this man before.”（3）不是疑問句的間接敘述之前若無受詞受say，若有用tellShe said she loved me.She told me she loved me.7.tell通常都是先接間接受詞(人)，再接直接受詞（事），但是在tell (somebody) a lie，tell (somebody) the truth等語裡的somebody可省略，其中中的tell都不可改用sayI don’t think she’s telling the truth.8.tell加受詞之後接不定詞，表示命令或忠告，say、talk、speak都不可用於此種結構I told them to shut up.9.不是口說，而是信、書、報上說都用say，不可用tell、talk、speakThe paper says that it might rain this evening.10.說出某一個字、某件事或某一句話的”說”都用say，不可用tell、talk、speakI came to say good-bye to you.11.tell可作”辨別”、”洩露(秘密)”、”顯示”講，say、talk、speak無此含義he cannot tell right from wrong.12.只說”說話”，沒有指出說啥話，用speakSpeak up! = Speak more Loudly!13.說某人的好話或壞話用speakHe always speaks well of you to my face.14.美語中，say之後可以接不定詞，含義是”說應該做某事”My teacher gave me a great deal of advice; he said to study hard. 15. tell the time不是"看時間" 是指"看懂鐘錶上的時間"He's seven years old and he still can't tell the time.
英國英語和美國英語標點符號的差異
http://mypaper.pchome.com.tw/news/alanaddress/3/1312019471/20090207103037/
英國英語和美國英語標點符號的差異
1. 引號的用法：
屬於引語的逗號、句號在美國英語中位於引號內，而在英國英語中多位於引號外；
引語內再套用引語時，美國英語中雙引號在外單引號在內，而英國英語中的單引號在外、雙引號在內。
在美國英語中，如果省略號恰好在句尾，就用四個點。 例如：
I‘d like to... that is... if you don‘t mind....
2. 冒號的用法：
在小時與分鐘之間，美國英語多用冒號，英國英語多用句號；
美國英語中，信件或演說詞的稱呼語之後用冒號，而在英國英語中多用逗號。
中英文標點符號的差異
漢語中目前使用的標點符號是參考借鑒西文的標點體系而制定的，它既保留了西文標點的主體特徵，又帶有與漢語語言特點相適應的特色。因而，中英文標點符號之間存在著一定的差異。
1. 漢語中的某些標點符號為英語所沒有：
(1) 頓號（、）：
頓號在漢語中起分割句子中的並列成分的作用；英語中沒有頓號，分割句中的並列成分多用逗號。 例如：
She slowly, carefully, deliberately moved the box.
注意：類似的情況下，最後一個逗號後可加and，這個逗號也可省略。 例如：
-- She slowly, carefully(,) and deliberately moved the box.
(2) 書名號（《 》）：
英文沒有書名號，書名、報刊名用斜體或者下劃線表示。 例如：
Hamlet / Hamlet 《哈姆雷特》
Winter‘s Tale / Winter‘s Tale 《冬天的童話》
The New York Times / The New York Times 《紐約時報》
另外，英語中文章、詩歌、樂曲、電影、繪畫等的名稱和交通工具、航天器等的專有名詞也常用斜體來表示。
(3) 間隔號（•）：
漢語有間隔號，用在月份和日期、音譯的名和姓等需要隔開的詞語的正中間。 例如：
“一二•九”、
“奧黛麗‧赫本（人名）”等。
英語中沒有漢語的間隔號，需要間隔時多用逗點。
(4) 著重號：
有時漢語用在文字下點實心圓點表示需要強調的詞語，這些實心點就是著重號。而英語中沒有這一符號，需強調某些成分時可借助文字斜體、某些強調性辭彙、特殊句型、標點停頓等多種方法。
2. 英語中的某些標點符號為漢語所沒有：
(1) 撇號 -- Apostrophe（‘）(2) 連字型大小 -- Hyphen（-）(3) 斜線號 -- Virgule or Slash（/）：
該符號主要起分割作用。 例如：
It could be for staff and/or students.
也常用於標音。 例如：
bed /bed/
3. 某些符號在漢英兩種語言中的形式不同：
(1) 中文的句號是空心圈（。）；
英文的句號是實心點（ . ）。
(2) 英文的省略號是三個點（ ... ），位置在行底；
中文的為六個點（......），居於行中。
(3) 英文的破折號是（-）；
中文的是（--）。
中國學生常見標點符號錯誤例析(1) 頓號、書名號、句號、省略號錯誤
比較中英文標點符號可見，英文標點中沒有中文形式的頓號、書名號、句號和省略號。而這四種標點符號成了大學英語寫作中“借鑒頻率”較高的符號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕1. While she is reading《Gone With the Wind》, I am cooking.〔錯誤〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me, such as banana、orange、apple and pear.
英文中的印刷體用斜體字表示書籍、報刊、戲劇、電影、繪畫作品等的名稱，在書寫體或打字機打的文本中用字下線表示斜體字；英文常用逗號來代替冒號；而句號是用實心小黑點表示。
故以上兩句應改為：
〔修改〕1. While she is reading Gone With the Wind, I am cooking. (印刷體)
或 While she is reading Gone With the Wind, I am cooking. (書寫體)
〔修改〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me, such as banana, orange, apple and pear.
還有，英文中的省略號其實是三個句號的並列，許多學生由於受中文影響常錯誤地把英文省略號寫成六點。
(2) 冒號錯誤
冒號是中英文兼有的標點符號。在漢語中，冒號是表示提示性話語之後的停頓，常用在“說、道、講、問、唱、回答、喊、吼”等動詞的後邊，以標明下面的話是誰說的。
此用法影響下列英文句子標點：
〔錯誤〕3. I thought to myself : “What kind of trap is she laying？”
〔錯誤〕4. He asked : “Where are you from？”
以上兩例中的冒號在英文中需用逗點表示。
漢語中的冒號還可用在“如次”、“如下”、“例如”、“像”等引起下文的提示語後邊。在英文表達中，“for example” (例如) 一類的詞後常用逗點代替冒號。
〔錯誤〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life.
For example : a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others. 〔修改〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life.
For example, a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others.
(3) 破折號錯誤
漢語中的破折號標明行文中解釋說明的部分，而英文同位語也具有同等說明的功能，故英文寫作中用破折號連接同位語成份的錯誤也屢見不鮮。 例如：
〔錯誤〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university — Beijing University. 〔修改〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university, Beijing University.
對於同位語，英語一般使用逗點而不用破折號。英文中破折號的用法遠沒有中文的豐富。
在大學英語寫作中，與語法知識有關的標點錯誤主要有：
(1) 把非限制性定語從句(non-restrictive attributive clause)理解成限制性定語從句(restrictive
attributive clause) 而忽略用逗點。 例如：
〔錯誤〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop that was divided into two parts.
從句意來看，上句是一個非限制性定語從句，故應在shop後加逗點，把that相應改成which 即：
〔修改〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop, which was divided into two parts.
(2) 不論狀語從句在整個句子中處於何種位置，一概以逗點隔開。 例如：
〔錯誤〕8. We will go there, if it is fine tomorrow.
狀語從句可置於句首或句末。置於句首時，一般要用標點隔開；而置於句末時，則無需與主句隔開。故以上句子應改為：
〔修改〕8. If it is fine tomorrow, we will go there.
或 We will go there if it is fine tomorrow.
(3) 在疑問句形式的陳述句後使用問號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕9. What fun we girls could expect, to stay in the same class, studying for four long years
with them？ I wondered.
〔修改〕9. What fun could we girls expect, to stay in the same class, studying for four long years
with them, I wondered.
英語疑問除可用問號來表達外，尚可用詞序加以表達。故上例的疑問可用逗點表示。
(4) 誤把however, therefore, because, thus 等起聯繫作用的副詞當成並列連詞，導致寫作中的逗號粘連 (comma splice) 錯誤。 例如：
〔錯誤〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right, however, she didn’t care for that.
兩個完整的句子或兩個並列句之間不能一概用逗點點開，可用句號、分號或在逗點後加並列連詞 (and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet) 等方法修改。
故上例可改為：
〔修改〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right. However, she didn’t care for that.
或 She thought what the teacher pointed out was right; however, she didn’t care for that.
或 She thought what the teacher pointed out was right, but she didn’t care for that.
(5) 與comma splice 相映成趣的是，許多學生作文時，極少考慮句子間的邏輯關係。一個逗點連首尾，導致大量熔句 (fused sentence) 的堆砌。 例如：
〔錯誤〕11. Young men like blue jeans they wear them all the time.
〔修改〕11. Young men like blue jeans; they wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans. They wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans, and they wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans; they wear them all the time.
或 Since young men like blue jeans, they wear them all the time.
(6) 兩個並列的形容詞間以and 代替逗點。 例如：
〔錯誤〕12. Through the window, in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of
the small clearing where I spent my lonely and hard childhood.
現代英語表達一般在兩個形容詞中間不使用and，而是用逗點分隔。
例如：
〔修改〕12. Through the window, in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of
the small clearing where I spent my lonely, hard childhood
因語體錯位而造成的標點錯誤
英文寫作是一種書面語的輸出。其書面語體的特徵要求其與口頭語相區別。口語中存在的大量縮約 (Contraction) 在書面語體中應儘量避免。而許多學生在書面作文中大量使用省字型大小 ( ’ )，幾乎1/ 3 左右的作文在文體上存在漏洞，現代英語的發展對此卻難以容忍。
例如：
1. I’d like to share my joys with you. (I would like to)2. You can’t behave like that. (You cannot) 3. There’re so many splendid toys for me to select. (There are)
其他錯誤：
(1) 引號錯誤。 例如：
〔錯誤〕13. “No pain, no gain.” If you.
〔修改〕13. As the saying goes, “No pain, no gain.”
英文中短小的引語與作者提示“某某說”之類的詞語之間用逗點隔開，置於引號內。不能省略提示語“某某說”之類而直接引用。 例如：
〔錯誤〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled “Why Not More？”, Dr. Jefferson frowned
thoughtfully.
〔修改〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled “Why Not More？,” Dr. Jefferson frowned
thoughtfully.
許多學生對諸如上例引號邊的標點位置含糊，不清楚以下常用法：
“句號和逗號必須置於引號之內；
冒號和分號必須置於引號之外；
如果所引內容本身是疑問句或感歎句，問號和感嘆號一般放在引號之內。否則，問號和感嘆號則放在引號之外。”
(2) 日-月-年次序的日期中的逗號錯誤。
英語日期的表達可以用月-日-年的次序和日-月-年的次序，日和年之間加逗號而月和年之間習慣上不加逗號。 例如：
誤把“13 August 2002”寫成“13 August, 2002”。
(3) 在部分副詞如perhaps, so後加逗號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕16. Perhaps, I would not have such a good chance again.
〔錯誤〕17. So, they keep in touch with each other merely by writing letters and phoning now.
以上兩句的修改方法是把句中的逗號去掉。
4) 連接號 (hyphen) 錯誤。
許多英語習作者往往隨意用連接號派生單詞，如把“boyfriend”寫成“boy-friend”；“middle school”寫成“middle-school”。在行末單詞分行時，連接號使用錯誤更多。
與之相反，若把本應有的連接號粗心刪去，其單詞含義可能會大相徑庭。如有一年美國政府在一份貿易清單上列舉了一些免稅進口的物品，其中有一種是foreign fruit —plants (外國果樹苗)，後來由於打字員的疏忽，漏打連接號使其成了foreign fruit, plants (外國水果、樹苗)。結果導致第二年大量的水果如桔子、葡萄等從世界各地免稅湧入美國市場從而使美國政府當年損失約200多萬美元。
應用逗號而沒用，造成語義的表達不清。 例如：
Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange and black ties.
使人看了以後不知是發5 摞 (1 摞 = 12 打)
—紅、綠、藍、橙、黑各一摞— 領帶，
還是發4 摞
—紅、綠、藍、橙黑各一摞領帶。
這句話可改為：
–Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange, and black ties.
–Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange-and-black ties.
該用分號的地方用了逗點，不該用標點的地方也用了逗點，都導致了句子的錯誤。
例如：
–People make history, unusual people make history interesting.
此句逗點應改為分號，這是兩個獨立分句。 例如：
–Mary was happiest when she was free of her parents’ scrutiny , or while she was working
in her garden.
此句的並列連詞是連接的成對的從句，而不是獨立分句，連詞前面的逗號應去掉。
標點符號的使用是約定俗成的，初學寫作的人只有牢記它的使用規則，才能寫出規範的文章來。
文章定位：
英國英語和美國英語標點符號的差異
1. 引號的用法：
屬於引語的逗號、句號在美國英語中位於引號內，而在英國英語中多位於引號外；
引語內再套用引語時，美國英語中雙引號在外單引號在內，而英國英語中的單引號在外、雙引號在內。
在美國英語中，如果省略號恰好在句尾，就用四個點。 例如：
I‘d like to... that is... if you don‘t mind....
2. 冒號的用法：
在小時與分鐘之間，美國英語多用冒號，英國英語多用句號；
美國英語中，信件或演說詞的稱呼語之後用冒號，而在英國英語中多用逗號。
中英文標點符號的差異
漢語中目前使用的標點符號是參考借鑒西文的標點體系而制定的，它既保留了西文標點的主體特徵，又帶有與漢語語言特點相適應的特色。因而，中英文標點符號之間存在著一定的差異。
1. 漢語中的某些標點符號為英語所沒有：
(1) 頓號（、）：
頓號在漢語中起分割句子中的並列成分的作用；英語中沒有頓號，分割句中的並列成分多用逗號。 例如：
She slowly, carefully, deliberately moved the box.
注意：類似的情況下，最後一個逗號後可加and，這個逗號也可省略。 例如：
-- She slowly, carefully(,) and deliberately moved the box.
(2) 書名號（《 》）：
英文沒有書名號，書名、報刊名用斜體或者下劃線表示。 例如：
Hamlet / Hamlet 《哈姆雷特》
Winter‘s Tale / Winter‘s Tale 《冬天的童話》
The New York Times / The New York Times 《紐約時報》
另外，英語中文章、詩歌、樂曲、電影、繪畫等的名稱和交通工具、航天器等的專有名詞也常用斜體來表示。
(3) 間隔號（•）：
漢語有間隔號，用在月份和日期、音譯的名和姓等需要隔開的詞語的正中間。 例如：
“一二•九”、
“奧黛麗‧赫本（人名）”等。
英語中沒有漢語的間隔號，需要間隔時多用逗點。
(4) 著重號：
有時漢語用在文字下點實心圓點表示需要強調的詞語，這些實心點就是著重號。而英語中沒有這一符號，需強調某些成分時可借助文字斜體、某些強調性辭彙、特殊句型、標點停頓等多種方法。
2. 英語中的某些標點符號為漢語所沒有：
(1) 撇號 -- Apostrophe（‘）(2) 連字型大小 -- Hyphen（-）(3) 斜線號 -- Virgule or Slash（/）：
該符號主要起分割作用。 例如：
It could be for staff and/or students.
也常用於標音。 例如：
bed /bed/
3. 某些符號在漢英兩種語言中的形式不同：
(1) 中文的句號是空心圈（。）；
英文的句號是實心點（ . ）。
(2) 英文的省略號是三個點（ ... ），位置在行底；
中文的為六個點（......），居於行中。
(3) 英文的破折號是（-）；
中文的是（--）。
中國學生常見標點符號錯誤例析(1) 頓號、書名號、句號、省略號錯誤
比較中英文標點符號可見，英文標點中沒有中文形式的頓號、書名號、句號和省略號。而這四種標點符號成了大學英語寫作中“借鑒頻率”較高的符號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕1. While she is reading《Gone With the Wind》, I am cooking.〔錯誤〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me, such as banana、orange、apple and pear.
英文中的印刷體用斜體字表示書籍、報刊、戲劇、電影、繪畫作品等的名稱，在書寫體或打字機打的文本中用字下線表示斜體字；英文常用逗號來代替冒號；而句號是用實心小黑點表示。
故以上兩句應改為：
〔修改〕1. While she is reading Gone With the Wind, I am cooking. (印刷體)
或 While she is reading Gone With the Wind, I am cooking. (書寫體)
〔修改〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me, such as banana, orange, apple and pear.
還有，英文中的省略號其實是三個句號的並列，許多學生由於受中文影響常錯誤地把英文省略號寫成六點。
(2) 冒號錯誤
冒號是中英文兼有的標點符號。在漢語中，冒號是表示提示性話語之後的停頓，常用在“說、道、講、問、唱、回答、喊、吼”等動詞的後邊，以標明下面的話是誰說的。
此用法影響下列英文句子標點：
〔錯誤〕3. I thought to myself : “What kind of trap is she laying？”
〔錯誤〕4. He asked : “Where are you from？”
以上兩例中的冒號在英文中需用逗點表示。
漢語中的冒號還可用在“如次”、“如下”、“例如”、“像”等引起下文的提示語後邊。在英文表達中，“for example” (例如) 一類的詞後常用逗點代替冒號。
〔錯誤〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life.
For example : a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others. 〔修改〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life.
For example, a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others.
(3) 破折號錯誤
漢語中的破折號標明行文中解釋說明的部分，而英文同位語也具有同等說明的功能，故英文寫作中用破折號連接同位語成份的錯誤也屢見不鮮。 例如：
〔錯誤〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university — Beijing University. 〔修改〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university, Beijing University.
對於同位語，英語一般使用逗點而不用破折號。英文中破折號的用法遠沒有中文的豐富。
在大學英語寫作中，與語法知識有關的標點錯誤主要有：
(1) 把非限制性定語從句(non-restrictive attributive clause)理解成限制性定語從句(restrictive
attributive clause) 而忽略用逗點。 例如：
〔錯誤〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop that was divided into two parts.
從句意來看，上句是一個非限制性定語從句，故應在shop後加逗點，把that相應改成which 即：
〔修改〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop, which was divided into two parts.
(2) 不論狀語從句在整個句子中處於何種位置，一概以逗點隔開。 例如：
〔錯誤〕8. We will go there, if it is fine tomorrow.
狀語從句可置於句首或句末。置於句首時，一般要用標點隔開；而置於句末時，則無需與主句隔開。故以上句子應改為：
〔修改〕8. If it is fine tomorrow, we will go there.
或 We will go there if it is fine tomorrow.
(3) 在疑問句形式的陳述句後使用問號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕9. What fun we girls could expect, to stay in the same class, studying for four long years
with them？ I wondered.
〔修改〕9. What fun could we girls expect, to stay in the same class, studying for four long years
with them, I wondered.
英語疑問除可用問號來表達外，尚可用詞序加以表達。故上例的疑問可用逗點表示。
(4) 誤把however, therefore, because, thus 等起聯繫作用的副詞當成並列連詞，導致寫作中的逗號粘連 (comma splice) 錯誤。 例如：
〔錯誤〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right, however, she didn’t care for that.
兩個完整的句子或兩個並列句之間不能一概用逗點點開，可用句號、分號或在逗點後加並列連詞 (and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet) 等方法修改。
故上例可改為：
〔修改〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right. However, she didn’t care for that.
或 She thought what the teacher pointed out was right; however, she didn’t care for that.
或 She thought what the teacher pointed out was right, but she didn’t care for that.
(5) 與comma splice 相映成趣的是，許多學生作文時，極少考慮句子間的邏輯關係。一個逗點連首尾，導致大量熔句 (fused sentence) 的堆砌。 例如：
〔錯誤〕11. Young men like blue jeans they wear them all the time.
〔修改〕11. Young men like blue jeans; they wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans. They wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans, and they wear them all the time.
或 Young men like blue jeans; they wear them all the time.
或 Since young men like blue jeans, they wear them all the time.
(6) 兩個並列的形容詞間以and 代替逗點。 例如：
〔錯誤〕12. Through the window, in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of
the small clearing where I spent my lonely and hard childhood.
現代英語表達一般在兩個形容詞中間不使用and，而是用逗點分隔。
例如：
〔修改〕12. Through the window, in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of
the small clearing where I spent my lonely, hard childhood
因語體錯位而造成的標點錯誤
英文寫作是一種書面語的輸出。其書面語體的特徵要求其與口頭語相區別。口語中存在的大量縮約 (Contraction) 在書面語體中應儘量避免。而許多學生在書面作文中大量使用省字型大小 ( ’ )，幾乎1/ 3 左右的作文在文體上存在漏洞，現代英語的發展對此卻難以容忍。
例如：
1. I’d like to share my joys with you. (I would like to)2. You can’t behave like that. (You cannot) 3. There’re so many splendid toys for me to select. (There are)
其他錯誤：
(1) 引號錯誤。 例如：
〔錯誤〕13. “No pain, no gain.” If you.
〔修改〕13. As the saying goes, “No pain, no gain.”
英文中短小的引語與作者提示“某某說”之類的詞語之間用逗點隔開，置於引號內。不能省略提示語“某某說”之類而直接引用。 例如：
〔錯誤〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled “Why Not More？”, Dr. Jefferson frowned
thoughtfully.
〔修改〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled “Why Not More？,” Dr. Jefferson frowned
thoughtfully.
許多學生對諸如上例引號邊的標點位置含糊，不清楚以下常用法：
“句號和逗號必須置於引號之內；
冒號和分號必須置於引號之外；
如果所引內容本身是疑問句或感歎句，問號和感嘆號一般放在引號之內。否則，問號和感嘆號則放在引號之外。”
(2) 日-月-年次序的日期中的逗號錯誤。
英語日期的表達可以用月-日-年的次序和日-月-年的次序，日和年之間加逗號而月和年之間習慣上不加逗號。 例如：
誤把“13 August 2002”寫成“13 August, 2002”。
(3) 在部分副詞如perhaps, so後加逗號。 例如：
〔錯誤〕16. Perhaps, I would not have such a good chance again.
〔錯誤〕17. So, they keep in touch with each other merely by writing letters and phoning now.
以上兩句的修改方法是把句中的逗號去掉。
4) 連接號 (hyphen) 錯誤。
許多英語習作者往往隨意用連接號派生單詞，如把“boyfriend”寫成“boy-friend”；“middle school”寫成“middle-school”。在行末單詞分行時，連接號使用錯誤更多。
與之相反，若把本應有的連接號粗心刪去，其單詞含義可能會大相徑庭。如有一年美國政府在一份貿易清單上列舉了一些免稅進口的物品，其中有一種是foreign fruit —plants (外國果樹苗)，後來由於打字員的疏忽，漏打連接號使其成了foreign fruit, plants (外國水果、樹苗)。結果導致第二年大量的水果如桔子、葡萄等從世界各地免稅湧入美國市場從而使美國政府當年損失約200多萬美元。
應用逗號而沒用，造成語義的表達不清。 例如：
Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange and black ties.
使人看了以後不知是發5 摞 (1 摞 = 12 打)
—紅、綠、藍、橙、黑各一摞— 領帶，
還是發4 摞
—紅、綠、藍、橙黑各一摞領帶。
這句話可改為：
–Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange, and black ties.
–Please send me a gross each of the red, green, blue, orange-and-black ties.
該用分號的地方用了逗點，不該用標點的地方也用了逗點，都導致了句子的錯誤。
例如：
–People make history, unusual people make history interesting.
此句逗點應改為分號，這是兩個獨立分句。 例如：
–Mary was happiest when she was free of her parents’ scrutiny , or while she was working
in her garden.
此句的並列連詞是連接的成對的從句，而不是獨立分句，連詞前面的逗號應去掉。
標點符號的使用是約定俗成的，初學寫作的人只有牢記它的使用規則，才能寫出規範的文章來。
文章定位：
連接詞
連接詞
連接詞定義: 連接詞是指將句子中的子句、片語或字連接起來的字。
連接詞分三種: coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞 、subordinating conjunctions 從屬連 接詞 、 conjunctive adverb 連接詞副詞.
(1) Coordinating Conjunctions 對等連接詞
For Compound Sentences :連接兩個獨立子句
這類只有七個, 記住的方法是 "Fanboys." - For, And, Nor, But, Or , Yet , So
要怎麼樣分辨它們呢? 看它在句子裡的位置. 對等連接詞不能放在句首或句尾, 只可以待在中間, 有時候它的前面會加逗號. 你只要想著對等連接詞很乖, 不隨便從中間跑掉.
(2 ) Subordinating Conjunctions 從屬連接詞
For Complex Sentences : 使附屬子句與主要子句之間建立關係
這類有蠻多個, 想背可以, 但很累....
although, while, though, even if, whereas, because, since, as, so that, in that, in order that, if, unless, provided that, before, since, until, after, as soon as..........etc.
附屬連接詞可以做開頭, 放句子中間, 但不能放在句尾.
例:
Because xxxx, xxxxxx
xxxxxx because xxxxx
它也不會隨便移動.
(3) Conjunctive Adverb 連接詞副詞
被用來產生兩個觀念之間的複雜關係
這種更多, 建議不要背....
moreover, further,additionally, also, furthermore, however, on the other hand,
neverhteless, alternaticely, therefore, thus, hence, consequently.......etc.
連接詞副詞放那裡都可以, 不能用它來連接句子---就是說, 當它在句子中間的時候, 它的前面要加分號而不是逗號.
例:
However, xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx ; however, xxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxx, however.
從屬連接詞(副詞子句)
--------從屬連接詞種類繁多，本單元僅就國中教材常見的部分加以說明
引導副詞子句的從屬連接詞通常有下列兩種位置：
(1) 主要子句 + 從屬連接詞+從屬子句 I was happy when I heard the news.
(2) 從屬連接詞+從屬子句 , 主要子句 When I heard the news, I was happy.
表示時間的從屬連接詞
when
＊「當…的時候/期間」= at the time that.. / during the time that
I was happy when I heard the news. = When I heard the news, I was happy.
I put on my jacket when I feel cold.
I visited many museums when I was in England.
He was taking a shower when the telephone rang.
＊when之中的從屬子句若為未來式需用簡單現在式代替
I will tell him the truth when he comes here tomorrow. (X when he will come ..)
＊ 從屬子句的主詞若與主要子句的主詞相同則可去掉主詞並將動詞改為動名詞，則when便成為介係詞
When seeing the police, the thief ran away at once. (when是介係詞)
= When the thief saw the police, he ran away at once. (when是從屬連接詞)
while
＊「當…時」= during the time that…
I will think it over while I am having my lunch.
While I was studying, I fell asleep.
I was watching TV while my wife was cooking.
While ( I was) in London, I visited the British Museum.
Strike while the iron is hot. (【諺】打鐵趁熱)
＊ when 與 while的比較
when+瞬間動作或持續動作 / while+持續動作
情境說明：Tom read a novel from 1:00 to 3:00 yesterday. During the time, some things happened. The door bell rang at 1:30. Mary got home at 2:00.
The door bell rang while / when Tom was reading a novel.
= While/When Tom was reading a novel, the door bell rang.
= Tom was reading a novel when the door bell rang.
= When the door bell rang, Tom was reading a novel.
Mary got home when/when Tom was reading a novel.
= Tom was reading a novel when Mary got home.
(X)While he heard the bad news, he almost fainted. (while不能接瞬間動作)
(O)When he heard the bad news, he almost fainted.
＊as=when / as=while
表示某段時間
When / While / As he was a child, he lived in the country.
When / While / As they were talking, it began to rain.
表示某個時間
When / As he was leaving the park, he heard a noise under the bush.
＊「雖然」、「然而」
While he is good at tennis, he is bad at swimming. （雖然）
He is fat, while his son is thin. （然而）
until
＊「直到…才…」主要子句的動作為瞬間動作come, go, finish, start… ，需用否定句，即： not…until…
I couldn’t go home until I finished my homework. (我直到完成作業才能回家。)
I didn’t go to bed until (it was) twelve o’clock. (我直到十二點才睡覺。)
I won’t leave until it stops raining. (我會等到雨停才離開。)
Until you told me, I had no idea of it.(直到你告訴我，我才知道這件事。)
＊「直到…(為止)」主要子句的動作為持續性動作
I will stay here until he comes back. (我會留在這裡直到他回來。)
I waited for him until the store closed. (我等他等到商店關門。)
＊until = till
＊not…until…的句型變化
I didn’t know it until he came back. = I didn’t know it before he came back.
= It was not until he came back that I knew it.
= Not until he came back did I know it.
= Only when he came back did I know it.
after / before
＊注意事件發生的先後順序
Every day I eat breakfast, and then I go to school.
After I eat breakfast, I go to school.
= I go to school after I eat breakfast.
= Before I go to school, I eat breakfast.
= I eat breakfast before I go to school.
＊從屬子句中需用簡單現在式代替未來
I will tell you the truth after I finish this work. (X will finish)
What will you do before you go back home? (Xwill go)
＊after/before + Ving 從屬子句的主詞與主要子句的主詞相同時，則可去掉主詞並將動詞改為Ving，此時的after或before則成為介係詞
After I graduate from college, I will work in my father’s company.
After graduating from college, I will work in my father’s company.
Be sure to wash your hands before eating. ( = before you eat)
＊right after…. (就在…之後) / soon after…(…之後馬上…)
He died right after the accident happened.
I’m sorry to learn that you started to smoke soon after you got to America.
＊by the time = before
By the time you get there, it will be dark.
I will have finish cleaning the house by the time Mother gets home.
＊not…long before…(…不久就…) / …long before…(過了一段時間才…)
It was not long before I saw my mistake. (不久我就看到我的錯誤了。)
I didn’t wait long before she appeared. (我等了不久她就出現了。)
I was long before he came. (過了一段時間才他才來。)
since
＊「自從…以來」
(1) 現在完成式 since + 過去式的句子
She has studied English since she was five years old.
I haven’t see her since she went to the USA.
(2) It is 一段時間 since …. = It has been ~ since…(自從…已經~了)
It is a year since he returned. = It has been a year since he returned.
Three years have passed since he wrote to me last.
= It is three years since he wrote to me last.
＊「既然」表示理由
Since he won’t help me, I have to do it myself.
Since there is no bus there, we have to walk.
as soon as
＊「一…就…」
As soon as he saw his mother, he cried out.
He jumped as soon as he heard the good news.
once
＊「一旦；當…的時候」
Once you saw her, you will find what I say is true.
Once you understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
= As soon as you understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
= If you once understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
every time
＊「每次」
Every time he comes here, he will bring a lot of fruit to us.
表示原因的從屬連接詞
because
＊「因為」，表示直接的原因
We can’t play basketball outside because it is raining now.
Because he made a big mistake, he was punished by our teacher.
＊because不與對等連接詞so(所以)同時出現
(X) Because it is raining, so we can’t play basketball outside.
(O) Because it is raining, we can’t play basketball outside.
(O) It is raining, so we can’t play basketball outside.
＊because在否定句時，not可能修飾動詞，也有可能修飾because所引導的副詞子句
I did not go because I was afraid. (not修飾go, “我沒有去，因為我害怕。”)
I did not go because I was afraid. (not修飾because子句，”我並不因為害怕才去。”)
依照句義可明顯看出只有一種涵義合理
He did not come because he wanted to see me.
(X)他沒來，因為他想見我。
(O)他並非因為想見我才來。
He can not go to school because he is sick.
(O)他無法去上學因為他生病了。
(X)他並不因為生病才去上學。
We should not study English just because it is a school subject.
(O)我們不因該只是因為英語是學科才學它。
如果because前面有逗號，則not必定修飾動詞
I did not go, because I was afraid. (我沒去，因為我害怕。)
＊The reason (why) is …. that….
She decided not to go because she had no money.
The reason (why) she decided not to go was that she had no money.
＊not because…but because…(不是因為…而是因為…) = not that…but that…
I eat vegetables not because I like them but because they are good for the health.
Not that I love Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
--- Shakespear, Julius Caesar
＊because + 子句 / because of + 名詞
I didn’t go because it rained. = I didn’t go because of rain.
表示目的的從屬連接詞
so that / in order that
＊「為了…；以便…」
I will put it on the wall so that everybody may look at it.
He studies hard in order that he can pass the exam.
＊只有in order that 可放句首
In order that we could understand what he said, he spoke very slowly.
＊ in order to (= to) + VR / for + 名詞
Betty got up early in order to catch the early train.
= To catch the early train, Betty got up early.
= Betty got up early for the early train.
表示結果的從屬連接詞
so…that…
＊「如此…以致於…」so+形容詞/副詞+that+完整的句子
The box was so heavy that I couldn’t move it.
The girl is so lovely that everyone likes her.
He spoke so fast that I couldn’t understand what he said.
such…that…
＊「如此/這樣的…以致於…」 such+名詞+that+完整的句子
We were in such a hurry that we made so many mistakes.
He is such a fool that he believes everything his girlfriend tells him.
＊『a單數名詞+形容詞』 such + a + adj. + n. + that …
so + adj. + a + n. + that…
She is such a good girl that everyone likes her.
She is so good a girl that everyone likes her.
＊『複數/不可數名詞+形容詞』 such + adj. + n. + that …
They are such smart boys that they know how solve all the problems.
He can speak such good English that he has more opportunities than
others.
＊『複數/不可數名詞+many/much/few/little』 so + many/much/few/little + n. + that …
There are so many cars that the policeman has trouble controlling the
traffic.
I have so much homework today that I can’t finish it in an hour.
＊下列情形的that並非表示「以致於」的意思，而是名詞子句
I am so happy that all of you can come to my party.
(X)我是如此的高興以致於你們全都來參加我的宴會。
(O)我很高興你們全都來參加我的宴會。
so (that)
＊「所以」
He worked very hard, so that he became rich in a very short time.
It rained hard so that I didn’t have to water the flowers.
＊so that 可引導表目的的句子；也可引導表結果的句子。
He spoke clearly, so that everyone could heard. [表結果]
他說得很清楚，所以每個人都聽到了。
He spoke clearly, so that everyone could heard. [表目的]
他說得很清楚，以便每個人都能聽到。
表示條件的從屬連接詞
if
＊「如果」條件句中的未來式需用簡單現在式代替
If it is fine tomorrow, we will go on a picnic.
We will go camping if it doesn’t rain tomorrow.
＊if還可以作when / whenever解釋
If he comes, I will tell him truth. = When he comes, I will tell him the truth.
If he wants money, he asks for his mother. = Whenever he wants money, he…
＊if only 「只要」
I will let you go if only you can finish your work in an hour.
If you only read this book carefully, you will know more about the writer.
＊only if「只有」
I told him he could pass the exam only if he studied hard.
Only if it is nice outside can we have the picnic.
as long as / so long as
＊「只要」
I will lend you my bicycle as long as you can lend me your computer.
As long as he comes here on time, we can have the meeting.
unless
＊「除非」if… not…的加強語氣
The baby will never cry unless he is hungry.
You will not pass the exam unless you study hard.
once
＊「一旦」= if you… ; as soon as
Once you hear the story, you will never forget it.
Once you understand the tips, you will have no more difficulty.
Where…there…
＊「若…則…」
Where there is no fire, there is no smoke.(【諺】無風不起浪)
Where there is a will, there is a way.(【諺】有志者事竟成)
Where there is no rain, there is no farming.
表示讓步的從屬連接詞
although / though
＊「雖然」
Although he doesn’t like his job, he still has to do it.
Although I have known him for ten years, I have never been to his home.
＊不可與對等連接詞but同時出現
(X)Although I am tired now, but I still have to work.
(O)Although I am tired now, I still have to work.
=I am tired now, but I still have to work.
＊主要子句可以加上yet或 still來加強語氣
Although I believe it, yet I will not act now.
Although he is poor, he still lives happily.
even if / even though
＊「即使，雖然」
Even if he is often absent, his grades are still excellent.
We will still go camping even if it rains tomorrow.
＊比較if
If it rains tomorrow, we will not go camping.
= If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, we will go camping.
Even if it rains tomorrow, we will go camping.
= Whether it rains tomorrow or not, we will go camping.
whether…or not
＊「無論…」
Whether you like it or not, you will have to do it.
The game will start on time whether he comes or not.
＊whether A or B, … A與B為相反詞
I will go whether it rains or shines.
Whether we win or lose, we are going to do our best.
Whether you go or stay, you must pay the bill.
＊與名詞子句「是否whether or not」比較
I don’t know whether he will come or not. [名詞子句，保留原時態]
(我不知道是否他會來。) ( or not可以省略 )
I will do it whether he comes or not. [從屬連接詞，現在式代替未來式]
(無論他來到與否，我仍將做這件事。) ( or not不可以省略
no matter +疑問詞 = 疑問詞-ever
＊「無論…」
No matter who (= Whoever) comes, he will be welcome. (無論誰來都受歡迎。)
No matter what (=Whatever) you do, do it well. (無論你做什麼，都要好好地去做。)
No matter where you live, you cannot be happy without a friend.
No matter when my mother goes shopping, she takes me with her, and makes me carry all she buys.
連接詞定義: 連接詞是指將句子中的子句、片語或字連接起來的字。
連接詞分三種: coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞 、subordinating conjunctions 從屬連 接詞 、 conjunctive adverb 連接詞副詞.
(1) Coordinating Conjunctions 對等連接詞
For Compound Sentences :連接兩個獨立子句
這類只有七個, 記住的方法是 "Fanboys." - For, And, Nor, But, Or , Yet , So
要怎麼樣分辨它們呢? 看它在句子裡的位置. 對等連接詞不能放在句首或句尾, 只可以待在中間, 有時候它的前面會加逗號. 你只要想著對等連接詞很乖, 不隨便從中間跑掉.
(2 ) Subordinating Conjunctions 從屬連接詞
For Complex Sentences : 使附屬子句與主要子句之間建立關係
這類有蠻多個, 想背可以, 但很累....
although, while, though, even if, whereas, because, since, as, so that, in that, in order that, if, unless, provided that, before, since, until, after, as soon as..........etc.
附屬連接詞可以做開頭, 放句子中間, 但不能放在句尾.
例:
Because xxxx, xxxxxx
xxxxxx because xxxxx
它也不會隨便移動.
(3) Conjunctive Adverb 連接詞副詞
被用來產生兩個觀念之間的複雜關係
這種更多, 建議不要背....
moreover, further,additionally, also, furthermore, however, on the other hand,
neverhteless, alternaticely, therefore, thus, hence, consequently.......etc.
連接詞副詞放那裡都可以, 不能用它來連接句子---就是說, 當它在句子中間的時候, 它的前面要加分號而不是逗號.
例:
However, xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx ; however, xxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxx, however.
從屬連接詞(副詞子句)
--------從屬連接詞種類繁多，本單元僅就國中教材常見的部分加以說明
引導副詞子句的從屬連接詞通常有下列兩種位置：
(1) 主要子句 + 從屬連接詞+從屬子句 I was happy when I heard the news.
(2) 從屬連接詞+從屬子句 , 主要子句 When I heard the news, I was happy.
表示時間的從屬連接詞
when
＊「當…的時候/期間」= at the time that.. / during the time that
I was happy when I heard the news. = When I heard the news, I was happy.
I put on my jacket when I feel cold.
I visited many museums when I was in England.
He was taking a shower when the telephone rang.
＊when之中的從屬子句若為未來式需用簡單現在式代替
I will tell him the truth when he comes here tomorrow. (X when he will come ..)
＊ 從屬子句的主詞若與主要子句的主詞相同則可去掉主詞並將動詞改為動名詞，則when便成為介係詞
When seeing the police, the thief ran away at once. (when是介係詞)
= When the thief saw the police, he ran away at once. (when是從屬連接詞)
while
＊「當…時」= during the time that…
I will think it over while I am having my lunch.
While I was studying, I fell asleep.
I was watching TV while my wife was cooking.
While ( I was) in London, I visited the British Museum.
Strike while the iron is hot. (【諺】打鐵趁熱)
＊ when 與 while的比較
when+瞬間動作或持續動作 / while+持續動作
情境說明：Tom read a novel from 1:00 to 3:00 yesterday. During the time, some things happened. The door bell rang at 1:30. Mary got home at 2:00.
The door bell rang while / when Tom was reading a novel.
= While/When Tom was reading a novel, the door bell rang.
= Tom was reading a novel when the door bell rang.
= When the door bell rang, Tom was reading a novel.
Mary got home when/when Tom was reading a novel.
= Tom was reading a novel when Mary got home.
(X)While he heard the bad news, he almost fainted. (while不能接瞬間動作)
(O)When he heard the bad news, he almost fainted.
＊as=when / as=while
表示某段時間
When / While / As he was a child, he lived in the country.
When / While / As they were talking, it began to rain.
表示某個時間
When / As he was leaving the park, he heard a noise under the bush.
＊「雖然」、「然而」
While he is good at tennis, he is bad at swimming. （雖然）
He is fat, while his son is thin. （然而）
until
＊「直到…才…」主要子句的動作為瞬間動作come, go, finish, start… ，需用否定句，即： not…until…
I couldn’t go home until I finished my homework. (我直到完成作業才能回家。)
I didn’t go to bed until (it was) twelve o’clock. (我直到十二點才睡覺。)
I won’t leave until it stops raining. (我會等到雨停才離開。)
Until you told me, I had no idea of it.(直到你告訴我，我才知道這件事。)
＊「直到…(為止)」主要子句的動作為持續性動作
I will stay here until he comes back. (我會留在這裡直到他回來。)
I waited for him until the store closed. (我等他等到商店關門。)
＊until = till
＊not…until…的句型變化
I didn’t know it until he came back. = I didn’t know it before he came back.
= It was not until he came back that I knew it.
= Not until he came back did I know it.
= Only when he came back did I know it.
after / before
＊注意事件發生的先後順序
Every day I eat breakfast, and then I go to school.
After I eat breakfast, I go to school.
= I go to school after I eat breakfast.
= Before I go to school, I eat breakfast.
= I eat breakfast before I go to school.
＊從屬子句中需用簡單現在式代替未來
I will tell you the truth after I finish this work. (X will finish)
What will you do before you go back home? (Xwill go)
＊after/before + Ving 從屬子句的主詞與主要子句的主詞相同時，則可去掉主詞並將動詞改為Ving，此時的after或before則成為介係詞
After I graduate from college, I will work in my father’s company.
After graduating from college, I will work in my father’s company.
Be sure to wash your hands before eating. ( = before you eat)
＊right after…. (就在…之後) / soon after…(…之後馬上…)
He died right after the accident happened.
I’m sorry to learn that you started to smoke soon after you got to America.
＊by the time = before
By the time you get there, it will be dark.
I will have finish cleaning the house by the time Mother gets home.
＊not…long before…(…不久就…) / …long before…(過了一段時間才…)
It was not long before I saw my mistake. (不久我就看到我的錯誤了。)
I didn’t wait long before she appeared. (我等了不久她就出現了。)
I was long before he came. (過了一段時間才他才來。)
since
＊「自從…以來」
(1) 現在完成式 since + 過去式的句子
She has studied English since she was five years old.
I haven’t see her since she went to the USA.
(2) It is 一段時間 since …. = It has been ~ since…(自從…已經~了)
It is a year since he returned. = It has been a year since he returned.
Three years have passed since he wrote to me last.
= It is three years since he wrote to me last.
＊「既然」表示理由
Since he won’t help me, I have to do it myself.
Since there is no bus there, we have to walk.
as soon as
＊「一…就…」
As soon as he saw his mother, he cried out.
He jumped as soon as he heard the good news.
once
＊「一旦；當…的時候」
Once you saw her, you will find what I say is true.
Once you understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
= As soon as you understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
= If you once understand this rule, you will have no more difficulty.
every time
＊「每次」
Every time he comes here, he will bring a lot of fruit to us.
表示原因的從屬連接詞
because
＊「因為」，表示直接的原因
We can’t play basketball outside because it is raining now.
Because he made a big mistake, he was punished by our teacher.
＊because不與對等連接詞so(所以)同時出現
(X) Because it is raining, so we can’t play basketball outside.
(O) Because it is raining, we can’t play basketball outside.
(O) It is raining, so we can’t play basketball outside.
＊because在否定句時，not可能修飾動詞，也有可能修飾because所引導的副詞子句
I did not go because I was afraid. (not修飾go, “我沒有去，因為我害怕。”)
I did not go because I was afraid. (not修飾because子句，”我並不因為害怕才去。”)
依照句義可明顯看出只有一種涵義合理
He did not come because he wanted to see me.
(X)他沒來，因為他想見我。
(O)他並非因為想見我才來。
He can not go to school because he is sick.
(O)他無法去上學因為他生病了。
(X)他並不因為生病才去上學。
We should not study English just because it is a school subject.
(O)我們不因該只是因為英語是學科才學它。
如果because前面有逗號，則not必定修飾動詞
I did not go, because I was afraid. (我沒去，因為我害怕。)
＊The reason (why) is …. that….
She decided not to go because she had no money.
The reason (why) she decided not to go was that she had no money.
＊not because…but because…(不是因為…而是因為…) = not that…but that…
I eat vegetables not because I like them but because they are good for the health.
Not that I love Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
--- Shakespear, Julius Caesar
＊because + 子句 / because of + 名詞
I didn’t go because it rained. = I didn’t go because of rain.
表示目的的從屬連接詞
so that / in order that
＊「為了…；以便…」
I will put it on the wall so that everybody may look at it.
He studies hard in order that he can pass the exam.
＊只有in order that 可放句首
In order that we could understand what he said, he spoke very slowly.
＊ in order to (= to) + VR / for + 名詞
Betty got up early in order to catch the early train.
= To catch the early train, Betty got up early.
= Betty got up early for the early train.
表示結果的從屬連接詞
so…that…
＊「如此…以致於…」so+形容詞/副詞+that+完整的句子
The box was so heavy that I couldn’t move it.
The girl is so lovely that everyone likes her.
He spoke so fast that I couldn’t understand what he said.
such…that…
＊「如此/這樣的…以致於…」 such+名詞+that+完整的句子
We were in such a hurry that we made so many mistakes.
He is such a fool that he believes everything his girlfriend tells him.
＊『a單數名詞+形容詞』 such + a + adj. + n. + that …
so + adj. + a + n. + that…
She is such a good girl that everyone likes her.
She is so good a girl that everyone likes her.
＊『複數/不可數名詞+形容詞』 such + adj. + n. + that …
They are such smart boys that they know how solve all the problems.
He can speak such good English that he has more opportunities than
others.
＊『複數/不可數名詞+many/much/few/little』 so + many/much/few/little + n. + that …
There are so many cars that the policeman has trouble controlling the
traffic.
I have so much homework today that I can’t finish it in an hour.
＊下列情形的that並非表示「以致於」的意思，而是名詞子句
I am so happy that all of you can come to my party.
(X)我是如此的高興以致於你們全都來參加我的宴會。
(O)我很高興你們全都來參加我的宴會。
so (that)
＊「所以」
He worked very hard, so that he became rich in a very short time.
It rained hard so that I didn’t have to water the flowers.
＊so that 可引導表目的的句子；也可引導表結果的句子。
He spoke clearly, so that everyone could heard. [表結果]
他說得很清楚，所以每個人都聽到了。
He spoke clearly, so that everyone could heard. [表目的]
他說得很清楚，以便每個人都能聽到。
表示條件的從屬連接詞
if
＊「如果」條件句中的未來式需用簡單現在式代替
If it is fine tomorrow, we will go on a picnic.
We will go camping if it doesn’t rain tomorrow.
＊if還可以作when / whenever解釋
If he comes, I will tell him truth. = When he comes, I will tell him the truth.
If he wants money, he asks for his mother. = Whenever he wants money, he…
＊if only 「只要」
I will let you go if only you can finish your work in an hour.
If you only read this book carefully, you will know more about the writer.
＊only if「只有」
I told him he could pass the exam only if he studied hard.
Only if it is nice outside can we have the picnic.
as long as / so long as
＊「只要」
I will lend you my bicycle as long as you can lend me your computer.
As long as he comes here on time, we can have the meeting.
unless
＊「除非」if… not…的加強語氣
The baby will never cry unless he is hungry.
You will not pass the exam unless you study hard.
once
＊「一旦」= if you… ; as soon as
Once you hear the story, you will never forget it.
Once you understand the tips, you will have no more difficulty.
Where…there…
＊「若…則…」
Where there is no fire, there is no smoke.(【諺】無風不起浪)
Where there is a will, there is a way.(【諺】有志者事竟成)
Where there is no rain, there is no farming.
表示讓步的從屬連接詞
although / though
＊「雖然」
Although he doesn’t like his job, he still has to do it.
Although I have known him for ten years, I have never been to his home.
＊不可與對等連接詞but同時出現
(X)Although I am tired now, but I still have to work.
(O)Although I am tired now, I still have to work.
=I am tired now, but I still have to work.
＊主要子句可以加上yet或 still來加強語氣
Although I believe it, yet I will not act now.
Although he is poor, he still lives happily.
even if / even though
＊「即使，雖然」
Even if he is often absent, his grades are still excellent.
We will still go camping even if it rains tomorrow.
＊比較if
If it rains tomorrow, we will not go camping.
= If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, we will go camping.
Even if it rains tomorrow, we will go camping.
= Whether it rains tomorrow or not, we will go camping.
whether…or not
＊「無論…」
Whether you like it or not, you will have to do it.
The game will start on time whether he comes or not.
＊whether A or B, … A與B為相反詞
I will go whether it rains or shines.
Whether we win or lose, we are going to do our best.
Whether you go or stay, you must pay the bill.
＊與名詞子句「是否whether or not」比較
I don’t know whether he will come or not. [名詞子句，保留原時態]
(我不知道是否他會來。) ( or not可以省略 )
I will do it whether he comes or not. [從屬連接詞，現在式代替未來式]
(無論他來到與否，我仍將做這件事。) ( or not不可以省略
no matter +疑問詞 = 疑問詞-ever
＊「無論…」
No matter who (= Whoever) comes, he will be welcome. (無論誰來都受歡迎。)
No matter what (=Whatever) you do, do it well. (無論你做什麼，都要好好地去做。)
No matter where you live, you cannot be happy without a friend.
No matter when my mother goes shopping, she takes me with her, and makes me carry all she buys.
副詞
Examples of adverbs in adverbial functions
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Contrary to what many people think, "adverb" and "adverbial" are two different things. An "adverb" is a type of word that is a member of the adverb part of speech class, while an "adverbial" is a syntactic function.
The following examples illustrate adverbs in adverbial functions in English.
as a verb-modifier
(1) In the following examples, the adverb, as a verb-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The verb that it modifies is shown in italics.
It is tiring to run quickly.
My sister laughs loudly.
The sun shone brightly.
The captain went boldly.
The farmer worked hard. (NB: Not hardly)
The minister spoke well. (NB: Not goodly)
as an adjective-modifier
(2) In the following examples, the adverb, as an adjective-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The adjective it modifies is shown in italics.
His poetry is very beautiful. (NB: Not "muchly.")
The meaning of this passage is abundantly clear.
That sign is hardly visible.
as an adverb-modifier
(3) In the following examples, the adverb, as an adverb-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The adverb that it modifies is shown in italics.
I know that he can write more clearly.
The sun came out quite suddenly.
This species is the slightly slower growing one.
adverb modifies a preposition
(4) In the following examples the adverb modifies a preposition.
She is standing very near the door.
They are almost out of the building
adverb modifies a whole sentence
(5) In the following examples the adverb modifies a whole sentence.
Finally, she went home.
Suddenly, the cat came in.
Today, we can go on a day trip.
adverb links one sentence to another
(6) In the following examples the adverb links one sentence to another.
It was hot. She, therefore, went swimming.
It was raining. She went swimming, however.
She woke up. Then she got out of bed.
Groups of adverbs
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Adverbs can be put into several groups:
Adverbs of manner (adverbs that tell how) Examples: happily, quickly, slowly, badly
Adverbs of time (adverbs that tell when) Examples: then, now, soon
Adverbs of place (adverbs that tell where) Examples: there, here, nowhere
Adverbs of degree (adverbs that tell to what extent) Examples: more, very, barely, vaguely
Adverbs which comment on the whole sentence. Example: Stupidly, she answered the questions. (Cf. She answered the questions stupidly)
Adverbs which link sentences. Example: Miss Gold, therefore, left the room. (The adverb therefore links this sentence to another.)
English does not make any grammatical distinction between these groups of adverbs, but some languages do. For example, in German, if a sentence contains multiple adverbs, they should appear in a particular order: time, manner, place.
Adverbs as a "catch all" category
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Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar, which is derived from Latin grammar, and are still included as a part of speech in grammar taught in schools and used in dictionaries. However, modern grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of different functions. Some would go so far as to call adverbs a "catch all" category that includes all words that don't belong to one of the other parts of speech.
A more logical approach to dividing words into classes relies on recognizing which words can be used in a certain context. For example, a noun is a word that can be inserted in the following template to form a grammatical sentence:
The ____ is red.
When this approach is taken, it is seen that adverbs fall into a number of different categories.
For example, some adverbs can be used to modify an entire sentence, whereas others can not. Even when a sentential adverb has other functions, the meaning is often not the same. For example, in the sentences She gave birth naturally and Naturally, she gave birth, the word naturally has different meanings (actually the first sentence could be interpreted in the same way as the second, but context makes it clear which is meant). Naturally as a sentential adverb means something like "of course" and as a verb-modifying adverb means "in a natural manner". The "hopefully" controversy demonstrates that the class of sentential adverbs is a closed class (there is resistance to adding new words to the class), whereas the class of adverbs that modify verbs is not.
Words like very and particularly afford another useful example. We can say Jim is very fast, but not Jim very won the race. These words can modify adjectives but not verbs. On the other hand, there are words like here and there that cannot modify adjectives. We can say The sofa looks good there but not It is a there beautiful sofa. The fact that many adverbs can be used in more than one of these functions can confuse this issue, and it may seem like splitting hairs to say that a single adverb is really two or more words that serve different functions. However, this distinction can be useful, especially considering adverbs like naturally that have different meanings in their different functions.
Not is an interesting case. Grammarians have a difficult time categorizing it, and it probably belongs in its own class.
See also
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Contrary to what many people think, "adverb" and "adverbial" are two different things. An "adverb" is a type of word that is a member of the adverb part of speech class, while an "adverbial" is a syntactic function.
The following examples illustrate adverbs in adverbial functions in English.
as a verb-modifier
(1) In the following examples, the adverb, as a verb-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The verb that it modifies is shown in italics.
It is tiring to run quickly.
My sister laughs loudly.
The sun shone brightly.
The captain went boldly.
The farmer worked hard. (NB: Not hardly)
The minister spoke well. (NB: Not goodly)
as an adjective-modifier
(2) In the following examples, the adverb, as an adjective-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The adjective it modifies is shown in italics.
His poetry is very beautiful. (NB: Not "muchly.")
The meaning of this passage is abundantly clear.
That sign is hardly visible.
as an adverb-modifier
(3) In the following examples, the adverb, as an adverb-modifier, is highlighted in bold. The adverb that it modifies is shown in italics.
I know that he can write more clearly.
The sun came out quite suddenly.
This species is the slightly slower growing one.
adverb modifies a preposition
(4) In the following examples the adverb modifies a preposition.
She is standing very near the door.
They are almost out of the building
adverb modifies a whole sentence
(5) In the following examples the adverb modifies a whole sentence.
Finally, she went home.
Suddenly, the cat came in.
Today, we can go on a day trip.
adverb links one sentence to another
(6) In the following examples the adverb links one sentence to another.
It was hot. She, therefore, went swimming.
It was raining. She went swimming, however.
She woke up. Then she got out of bed.
Groups of adverbs
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Adverbs can be put into several groups:
Adverbs of manner (adverbs that tell how) Examples: happily, quickly, slowly, badly
Adverbs of time (adverbs that tell when) Examples: then, now, soon
Adverbs of place (adverbs that tell where) Examples: there, here, nowhere
Adverbs of degree (adverbs that tell to what extent) Examples: more, very, barely, vaguely
Adverbs which comment on the whole sentence. Example: Stupidly, she answered the questions. (Cf. She answered the questions stupidly)
Adverbs which link sentences. Example: Miss Gold, therefore, left the room. (The adverb therefore links this sentence to another.)
English does not make any grammatical distinction between these groups of adverbs, but some languages do. For example, in German, if a sentence contains multiple adverbs, they should appear in a particular order: time, manner, place.
Adverbs as a "catch all" category
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Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar, which is derived from Latin grammar, and are still included as a part of speech in grammar taught in schools and used in dictionaries. However, modern grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of different functions. Some would go so far as to call adverbs a "catch all" category that includes all words that don't belong to one of the other parts of speech.
A more logical approach to dividing words into classes relies on recognizing which words can be used in a certain context. For example, a noun is a word that can be inserted in the following template to form a grammatical sentence:
The ____ is red.
When this approach is taken, it is seen that adverbs fall into a number of different categories.
For example, some adverbs can be used to modify an entire sentence, whereas others can not. Even when a sentential adverb has other functions, the meaning is often not the same. For example, in the sentences She gave birth naturally and Naturally, she gave birth, the word naturally has different meanings (actually the first sentence could be interpreted in the same way as the second, but context makes it clear which is meant). Naturally as a sentential adverb means something like "of course" and as a verb-modifying adverb means "in a natural manner". The "hopefully" controversy demonstrates that the class of sentential adverbs is a closed class (there is resistance to adding new words to the class), whereas the class of adverbs that modify verbs is not.
Words like very and particularly afford another useful example. We can say Jim is very fast, but not Jim very won the race. These words can modify adjectives but not verbs. On the other hand, there are words like here and there that cannot modify adjectives. We can say The sofa looks good there but not It is a there beautiful sofa. The fact that many adverbs can be used in more than one of these functions can confuse this issue, and it may seem like splitting hairs to say that a single adverb is really two or more words that serve different functions. However, this distinction can be useful, especially considering adverbs like naturally that have different meanings in their different functions.
Not is an interesting case. Grammarians have a difficult time categorizing it, and it probably belongs in its own class.
See also
COMMAS AFTER INSTRODUCTIONS
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/03/
Introductory Clauses
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause. For example:
If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day.
(introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey.
(introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.
Introductory Phrases
Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete clauses. Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of the sentence. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.
To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day.
(introductory infinitive phrase, main clause)
Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him.
(introductory participial phrase, main clause)
A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favorite in the
campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase, main clause)
The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase, main clause)
After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)
Introductory Words
Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the next.
The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.
Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.
When to Use a Comma
Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:
After an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
After a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)
After introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
If there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?) to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)
When not to Use a Comma
Some introductory elements don't require a comma, and sometimes the subject of a sentence looks like an introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the following cases:
After a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
After a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)
To separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)
Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening segment (marked with an x), but the opening segment is really the subject. It's sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase subjects like the following with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful.
Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and possible publication[x] was one of the most difficult tasks Bill had ever attempted.
To start a new business without doing market research and long-term planning in advance[x] would be foolish.
Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on labor and materials[x] is the primary goal of a capitalist.
*********************
Commas After Introductory Phrases
Prepositional Phrases
Use a comma to separate a group of prepositional phrases of more than four words when the phrases come at the beginning of a sentence.
Do not use a comma between separate phrases unless they are in a series.
A comma may also set off a single prepositional phrase at the beginning to make the sentence clear. A comma is recommended after any introductory prepositional phrase of more than four words.
Correct: Under the kitchen table the dog cowered.
(Single short, clear phrase. No comma needed.)
Correct: Under the spreading chestnut tree, the village smithy stands.
(Comma optional, but helpful due to length of phrase)
Correct: Under the pile of clothes, we found his wallet.
(Two prepositional phrases, not in a series)
Incorrect: On the sand, of the beach, by the inlet, we relaxed in the sun.
(Do not separate the phrases since they are not in a series.)
Correct: On the sand of the beach by the inlet, we relaxed in the sun.
Correct: Over hill, over dale, we hit the dusty trail.
(The two phrases are in series here. We could say "Over hill and over dale.")
Introductory Participial and Infinitive Phrases
Use a comma to separate introductory participial phrases and infinitive phrases used as modifiers.
Correct: Looking for help, the man fell on his knees to beg.
(Participial phrase)
Correct: To raise enough money in time, Mary had to issue stock in her business.
(The infinitive phrase is used as a modifier)
Incorrect: To ski, is exhilarating.
(The infinitive is used as a noun, not a modifier.)
Correct: To ski is exhilarating.
Introductory Clauses
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause. For example:
If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day.
(introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey.
(introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.
Introductory Phrases
Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete clauses. Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of the sentence. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.
To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day.
(introductory infinitive phrase, main clause)
Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him.
(introductory participial phrase, main clause)
A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favorite in the
campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase, main clause)
The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase, main clause)
After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)
Introductory Words
Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the next.
The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.
Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.
When to Use a Comma
Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:
After an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
After a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)
After introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
If there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?) to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)
When not to Use a Comma
Some introductory elements don't require a comma, and sometimes the subject of a sentence looks like an introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the following cases:
After a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
After a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)
To separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)
Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening segment (marked with an x), but the opening segment is really the subject. It's sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase subjects like the following with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful.
Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and possible publication[x] was one of the most difficult tasks Bill had ever attempted.
To start a new business without doing market research and long-term planning in advance[x] would be foolish.
Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on labor and materials[x] is the primary goal of a capitalist.
*********************
Commas After Introductory Phrases
Prepositional Phrases
Use a comma to separate a group of prepositional phrases of more than four words when the phrases come at the beginning of a sentence.
Do not use a comma between separate phrases unless they are in a series.
A comma may also set off a single prepositional phrase at the beginning to make the sentence clear. A comma is recommended after any introductory prepositional phrase of more than four words.
Correct: Under the kitchen table the dog cowered.
(Single short, clear phrase. No comma needed.)
Correct: Under the spreading chestnut tree, the village smithy stands.
(Comma optional, but helpful due to length of phrase)
Correct: Under the pile of clothes, we found his wallet.
(Two prepositional phrases, not in a series)
Incorrect: On the sand, of the beach, by the inlet, we relaxed in the sun.
(Do not separate the phrases since they are not in a series.)
Correct: On the sand of the beach by the inlet, we relaxed in the sun.
Correct: Over hill, over dale, we hit the dusty trail.
(The two phrases are in series here. We could say "Over hill and over dale.")
Introductory Participial and Infinitive Phrases
Use a comma to separate introductory participial phrases and infinitive phrases used as modifiers.
Correct: Looking for help, the man fell on his knees to beg.
(Participial phrase)
Correct: To raise enough money in time, Mary had to issue stock in her business.
(The infinitive phrase is used as a modifier)
Incorrect: To ski, is exhilarating.
(The infinitive is used as a noun, not a modifier.)
Correct: To ski is exhilarating.
如何使用標點符號
如何使用英文標點符號
如何正確地使用標點符號是學習英文必須具備的基本條件。標點符號能幫助作者清楚地傳達他的思想，使讀者對每一句話的結構與意義一目瞭然。一段沒有標點符號的文章是很難看懂的。
1. 沒有標點符號難以了解的例句：
(a) After eating the child left the table 乍看起來，好像是：「吃完那小孩以後…」。有了標點符號之後的句子是：After eating, the child left the table. 「吃完之後，那小孩離開了餐桌」。
(b) Inside the dog was growling乍看起來，好像是：「那隻狗的肚子裡在咆哮」。有了標點符號之後的句子是：Inside, the dog was growling. 「門裡面，那隻狗在咆哮」。
(c) What do you think I mend for nothing and give you two dollars乍看起來，好像是：「我免費給你補(鞋)之外，還要送你兩塊錢，你以為如何？」。有了標點符號之後的句子是： What! do you think I mend for nothing and give you two dollars?「什麼！你以為我免費給你補(鞋)之外，還給你兩塊錢嗎？」
2. 增減標點符號的例句：
(a)Happily he died. 他含笑而終。本句中happily修飾died.
Happily, he died. 真高興，他死了。本句中happily修飾 he died.
(b) No tax will be imposed on foreign fruit trees.
外國進口之果樹將不徵稅。
No tax will be imposed on foreign fruit, trees.
外國進口之水果，樹將不徵稅。
(c) Dr. Johnson, our family doctor cannot come today.
詹生醫師，我們的家庭醫師今天不能來。
本句是向詹生醫師傳達一項訊息。
(d) Dr. Johnson, our family doctor, cannot come today.
我們的家庭醫師詹生今天不能來。 本句中our family doctor 是Dr. Johnson 的同位語。
常用的英文標點符號有十二種，它們是：
l.Apostrophe 上標點(') 2.Comma 逗號(,) 3.Colon 冒號(:) 4.Dash 破折號(—)5.Exclamation Point 驚嘆號(!) 6.Hyphen 連字號(-) 7.Parentheses 括號( ) 8.Period 句號(．) 9.Question Mark 問號(?) lO.Quotation Marks 引號("…") 11.Semicolon 分號(;) l2.Triple Dots 刪節號(…)
現將各種標點符號的用法分別說明如后:
l. 上標點(')
(l)表示字母的省略。Can't you read those road signs?
(2)表示數字的省略。Today is Thursday, June 1, '89.
(3)表示字母的複數。There are five s’s in “sleeplessness.”
(4)表示單字的複數。Our teacher told us not to use so many so’s.
(5)表示數字的複數。Her 7’s and 9’s look alike.
(6)表示所有格。It’s Vice Burn’s umbrella.
2. 逗號(，)
(1) 用在以and ,but ,for, nor ,or ,so ,yet等連接詞連接的兩個主要子句之間。 My father is fond of fishing, but my mother prefers hiking.
(2) 在複合句中，如果附屬子句在前，主要子句在後，用在附屬子句之後。
While I was making a telephone call, someone knocked at my door．
注意：如果主要子句在前，則不用逗號。
(3) 用以分開非限制形容詞子句與主要子句。
Her father, who is a famous scholar, teaches English.
(4) 用以分開非限制同位語。
Kent Howard, my English teacher, is from America.
(5) 用在yes, no ,well等字之後。
(a) Yes, he is a hard-working student.
(b) No, it is impossible.
(c) Well, you may go if you insist.
(6) 向人說話時，用在對方名字或稱謂之後，之前或前後。
(a) John, come here.
(b) Open the door, John.
(c) It is, Sir, not my fault.
(7) 用以分開引用句
(a) “You are beautiful,” he said.
(b) Our teacher said, “Freedom is not license.”
(c) “No,” she said, “I was just testing your patience.”
(8) 用以分開星期，月日，年份。
On Sunday, May 28, 1989, her first child was born.
(9) 用以分開地名、省名、國名、街道名、巷弄名等。
Candy lives at 4 Alley 10, Lane 76, Ching Hua Street, Section 4, Taipei, Taiwan.
(10)用以分開一系列的單字，片語或子句。
(a) Her mother sells tomatoes, potatoes, and peaches.
(b) She ran up the stairs, across the porch, and into the house.
(c) We all agreed that she was beautiful, that she was intelligent, and that she was ambitious.
(11)用以表示字的省略。
The lion is the symbol of courage; the lamb, of meekness. (the lamb is the symbol of meekness).
(12)用在such as及especially的前面。
(a) They enjoy outdoor sports, such as hiking and riding.
(b)He likes all extracurricular activities, especially basketball playing.
(13)用以分開「乃此非彼」的結構。
He wanted to see Cliff, not Steve.
(14)用在追問句之前。
It is warm today, isn’t it?
3. 冒號(：)(1) 用在解釋或逐項列舉之前(在as follows, the following as these或given below之後)。
(a) I bought the following articles: sheets, towels, and blankets．
(b) The table lamp consists of three parts: a stand, a bulb, and a shade.
(2) 用在正式或事務信函中稱謂之後。
Dear Sir: Dear Mr. Reagan: Gentlemen:
注意:在非正式或交際信函中稱謂之後用逗號。
Dear Mary, Dear John,
(3) 用在數字之後，表示時間。
Our class starts at 8:10 a.m. and ends at 12:00 noon.
(4) 用在較長的引用句或正式問句之前。
(a) This is my favorite quotation: “It is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today and reality of tomorrow.”
(b) The question is: What can we do for our country?
(5) 用在講釋第一個主要子句的第二個主要句子之前。
Her intention is obvious: she wants to marry him.
4. 破折號(--)(1) 表示猶豫，句意的暫時中斷, 或思想的突然中斷。
(a) I—I don’t know. You’d better ask her.
(b) The entire teaching facilities—console, tapes, earphones, and tape recorders—were stolen last night.
(c) I’ll give—let’s see, what can I give?
(2) 用以強調同位語。
She has only one interest—food.
(3) 用在結語之前。
Professor Chu collects postage stamps, coins, sea shells, matchboxes—in short,
anything that interests him.
(4) 用在未完成句之後。She said, “He was everything to me, but--”
5. 驚嘆號(！) (1) 用在以強烈情感說出的字句之後。
(a) What a surprise!
(b) How beautiful a girl she is!
(c) What a beautiful girl she is!
(2) 用在祈使句之後。
(a) Help! My house is on fire!
(b) Be quiet!
6. 連字句(-) (1) 用以表示分數或連接由21至99中的十位數及個位數。
(a) Three-fourths of the freshman students are girls.
(b) There are twenty-two boy student and ninety-eight girl students in the Department of English.
(2) 用在行末連接分寫的單字。
He is a graduate student of National Chengchi Uni- versity.
(3) 用以連接複合字中的各字。
We had a heart-to-heart talk last night.
7. 括號( )用來在句中附加評論或解釋。
I saw the two students (they are lovers) kissing each other.
8. 句號( . )
(1) 用在敘述句，祈使句及禮貌問句之後。
(a) I wish to enter an ideal university.
(b) Turn in your papers, please.
(c) Will you please send me a copy of your university catalogue.
(2) 用在間接問句之後。
She asked if you would come to her birthday party.
(3) 用在縮寫名字和其他字的第一個字母之後，或縮寫字之後。
(a) Prof. W. W. Wang has returned to Taipei. (如果不用名字，則要用 Professor Wang.)
(b) Dr. Tang earned his Ph. D. degree from Georgetown University in Washington, D. C. (District of Columbia).
9. 問號(？)
(1) 用在直接問句之後。
Do you find English writing difficult?
(2) 用在括號中表示存疑。
Chaucer was born in 1340(?) and died in 1400.
10. 引號(“ ”)
(1) 用在引用句的前後。 (a) Our teacher said, “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.”
(b) “I don’t like her, ” she explained, “because she is far too proud.”
(2) 如果引用句本身是敘述句而且位在一個問句之後，必須先用引號，再用問號。
Did he say, “I am going to college next year”?
如果引用句本身是問句，則必須先用問號，再用引號。
Did he say, “Are you going to college next year?”
(3) 引用文句有兩段或兩段以上時，只在每一段開始時和最後一段結束時用引號。
“Mom and Dad did not come home with them because Sunday was parents’ day off; the boys did the housework and cooked the meal of the week, while Father and Mother stayed on for church service.
“But by the time diner was ready the boy had climbed into bed. The shoe had to be cut off his swollen and discolored leg. Why on earth hadn’t he told somebody? Go quick and fetch the doctor!”
(4) 引用句中另有引用句時, 用單引號表示
She said, “ I quite agree to the saying ‘To love and to be loved is the greatest happiness on earth’.”
注意：美式英文中，雙引號在外，單引號在內，英式英文中恰好相反。
11. 分號 (；)
(1) 用以連接兩個或兩個以上的主要子句。
(a) The singular form is mouse; the plural form is mice.
(b) she made up her mind; she laid her plans; she began her trip.
(2) 用在連接兩個主要子句的連接副詞 (consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, so, still, then, therefore, thus, etc.)之前。
He did not pass the examination; therefore, he was unhappy.
(3) 用在連接兩個主要子句的連接詞 (and, but, or, nor, for)之前，當主要子句本身有逗號時。
Henry, a freshman, lives at home; but Karl, his brother, does not.
12. 刪節號 (…)
用以表示引用句中省略的文字。如刪節號用在句尾，另加原句句尾的標點符號，如果是問號，則在刪節號之後加問號 (…?)
In his essay LUCK Winston Churchill wrote: “The longer one lives, the more one realizes that everything depends upon chance… a man’s own contribution to his life story is continually by an external superior power.”
注意：英文中表示「等等」用etc.而不是用刪節號(…)。
英文標點符號 Punctuation 教學 (1)，(Comma 逗號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d1.htm (2)．(Period 句號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d2.htm (3)；(Semicolon分號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d3.htm (4)：(Colon 冒號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d4.htm (5)？&！(Question mark問號& Exclamation point 驚嘆號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d5.htm (6) ─& - (Dash破折號& hyphen連字號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d6.htm (7) ( ) & [ ] (Parentheses 圓括號& Brackets括號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d7.htm (8) “ ” & ．．． (引號 & 省略號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d8.htm
HOW TO USE ENGLISH PUNCTUATION CORRECTLY
1. End your sentences with a period (full stop), question mark, or exclamation point (exclamation mark or shout mark).
1-1 Use the period (full stop) to denote a full stop at the end of a statement.
The period ( . ) is one of the most commonly used punctuation marks.
The accessibility of the computer has increased tremendously over
the past several years.
1-2 The question mark ( ? ), used at the end of a sentence, suggests an
interrogatory remark or inquiry.
What has humanity done about the growing concern of
global warming?
1-3 The exclamation point (exclamation mark, shout mark)( ! )
suggests excitement or emphasis in a sentence.
I can't believe how difficult the exam was!
2. Use the semicolon and colon properly.
o The semicolon ( ; ) has a few uses.
§ Use a semicolon to separate two related but independent clauses. Note that, if the two clauses are very wordy or complex, it is better to use a period instead.
§ People continue to worry about the future; our failure to conserve resources has put the world at risk.
§ Use a semicolon to separate a complex series of items, especially those that contain commas.
§ I went to the show with Jake, my close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend, Jenna.
o The colon ( : ) has multiple uses.
§ Use the colon to introduce a list. Be careful not to use a colon when denoting a regular series. Usually, the word following suggests the use of a colon. Use only after a full sentence which ends in a noun.
§ The professor has given me three options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit assignment, or to fail the class.
§ INCORRECT - The Easter basket contained: Easter eggs, chocolate rabbits, and other candy.
3. Understand the differences between a hyphen and a dash.
o The hyphen ( - ) was once a common punctuation mark on typewriters, when a long word might have been split between two lines. The hyphen is still used in a number of other areas:
§ Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make the word easier to read. If you were to leave the hyphen out of a word like re-examine, it would be reexamine, which would be harder to read. Understand that some words do not require a hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo. Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.
When you use a hyphen, the two words have to rely on each other. Example: re-arrange.
§ Cara is his ex-girlfriend.
§ Use hyphens when creating compound words from separate words.
§ The up-to-date newspaper reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.
§ Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen.
§ There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck. ("The amount is one hundred and eighty" is a common error in US English, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" is usually included.)
§ Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred—if the number is used as an adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated (I have one-hundred tapes). Otherwise, a hyphen should only occur if a number greater than 100 occurs within the larger number, e.g., He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.
o The dash ( -- or — ) should be used when making a brief interruption within a statement, a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification. It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement, such as for further clarification, but should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally. Try to remove the statement within the dash from the sentence; if the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, then you may need to revise. There should be spaces before and after the dash in British English.
§ An introductory clause is a brief phrase that comes—yes, you guessed it—at the beginning of a sentence.
§ This is the end of our sentence—or so we thought.
4. Use the double quotation mark and single quotation mark/apostrophe for different purposes.
o The double quotation ( " ) encloses a direct quotation, whether made by a person or taken from a piece of literature.
§ "I can't wait to see him perform!" John exclaimed.
§ According to the article, the value of the dollar in developing nations is "strongly influenced by its aesthetic value, rather than its face value."
o The single quotation mark or apostrophe ( ' ) has a variety of uses.
§ Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. Be aware of the difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use 's, whereas the plural version of that singular noun will use s'. Also, be mindful of nouns that are always considered to be plural, such as children and people — here, you should use 's. Be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as hers and its (it's is used only for the contractions of it is and it has). Their is possessive without apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomes theirs.
§ The hamster's water tube needs to be refilled.
§ A singular noun with possession.
§ In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be changed.
§ A pluralized singular noun with possession.
§ These children's test scores are the highest in the nation.
§ A plural noun with possession.
§ Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction. For example, cannot becomes can't, you are becomes you're, and they have becomes they've.
§ Use the single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
§ Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"
§ Note that an apostrophe is not used with 's' to make a plural noun from a singular. This is a very common mistake and should be avoided.
§ CORRECT - apple → apples
§ INCORRECT - apple → apple's
5. Indicate a break or pause within a sentence with the comma ( , ). This is another commonly used punctuation mark. There are several instances where you might use a comma:
o Use the comma when denoting an appositive, or a break within a sentence that supplements and adds information to the subject.
§ Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the developer of the operating system known as Windows.
o Use the comma when denoting a series. This is a set of three or more "list" items within a sentence. To save space in newspapers, some writers may omit the last comma.
§ The fruit basket contained apples, bananas, and oranges.
§ The computer store was filled with video games, computer hardware and other electronic paraphernalia.
o Use a comma if your subject has two or more adjectives describing it. This is somewhat similar to a series, except that it is incorrect to place a comma after the final adjective.
§ CORRECT - The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.
§ INCORRECT - The powerful, resonating, sound caught our attention.
o Use a comma when referring to a city and state. It is also necessary to use a comma to separate the city and state from the rest of the sentence.
§ I am originally from Freehold, NJ.
§ Los Angeles, CA, is one of the largest cities in the United States.
o Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase (which is usually one or more prepositional phrases) from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase briefly introduces the sentence, but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate, and it therefore should be separated from the main clause by a comma.
§ After the show, John and I went out to dinner.
§ On the back of my couch, my cat's claws have slowly been carving a large hole.
o Use the comma to separate two independent clauses. Having two independent clauses in a sentence simply means that you can split the sentence into two. If your sentence contains two independent clauses that are separated by a conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor, so, or yet ), place a comma before the conjunction.
§ Ryan went to the beach yesterday, but he forgot his sunscreen.
§ Water bills usually rise during the summer, as people are thirstier during hot and humid days.
o Use a comma when making a direct address. When calling one's attention by name, separate the person's name and the rest of the statement with a comma. Note that this kind of comma is used rarely in writing, because this is something that we do normally while speaking.
§ Amber, could you come here for a moment?
o Use a comma to separate direct quotations. A comma should come after the last word before a quotation that is being introduced. It is not necessary to use a comma in an indirect quote. A comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting an entire statement.
§ While I was at his house, John asked me if I wanted anything to eat.
§ An indirect quotation that does not require a comma.
§ While I was at his house, John asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"
§ A direct quotation.
§ According to the client, the lawyer was "lazy and incompetent."
§ A partial direct quotation that does not require a comma.
6. Understand the difference between parentheses, brackets, and braces.
o Use parentheses ( ( ) ) to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal comment. Be sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis.
§ Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.
§ Used for clarification. Here, commas can replace the parentheses.
§ You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).
§ An afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses — not before the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable here, and is better off with a period or a semicolon.
§ Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always interchangeable (I disagree).
§ A personal comment.
o Use brackets ( [ ] ) to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing. Brackets are often used to encompass the word "sic" (Latin for thus), suggesting that the previous word or phrase was written "as is", with the error intended to be displayed.
§ "[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of the incident.
§ "It was absolutely devastating!" – the actual quote by Susan Smith.
o Braces ( { } ) are most widely used in denoting a numeric set in mathematics. Though generally uncommon, braces can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal, independent choices.
§ { 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }
§ Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.
7. Know how to use the slash ( / ).
o Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate. The phrase "and/or" suggests that a series of options are not mutually exclusive.
§ "To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate."
o The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be sure to add spaces between your slashes here.
§ "Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / life is but a dream."
o The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns. By replacing "and" with a slash, you suggest that there is equal important to both characteristics. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis where "and" may not do so—as well as as not to confuse the reader. You can also do the same for "or", as in "his/her". However you should not use the slash to separate independent clauses, as shown below.
§ "The student and part-time employee has very little free time." → "The student/part-time employee has very little free time."
§ "Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" → "Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall? – This is incorrect.
如何正確地使用標點符號是學習英文必須具備的基本條件。標點符號能幫助作者清楚地傳達他的思想，使讀者對每一句話的結構與意義一目瞭然。一段沒有標點符號的文章是很難看懂的。
1. 沒有標點符號難以了解的例句：
(a) After eating the child left the table 乍看起來，好像是：「吃完那小孩以後…」。有了標點符號之後的句子是：After eating, the child left the table. 「吃完之後，那小孩離開了餐桌」。
(b) Inside the dog was growling乍看起來，好像是：「那隻狗的肚子裡在咆哮」。有了標點符號之後的句子是：Inside, the dog was growling. 「門裡面，那隻狗在咆哮」。
(c) What do you think I mend for nothing and give you two dollars乍看起來，好像是：「我免費給你補(鞋)之外，還要送你兩塊錢，你以為如何？」。有了標點符號之後的句子是： What! do you think I mend for nothing and give you two dollars?「什麼！你以為我免費給你補(鞋)之外，還給你兩塊錢嗎？」
2. 增減標點符號的例句：
(a)Happily he died. 他含笑而終。本句中happily修飾died.
Happily, he died. 真高興，他死了。本句中happily修飾 he died.
(b) No tax will be imposed on foreign fruit trees.
外國進口之果樹將不徵稅。
No tax will be imposed on foreign fruit, trees.
外國進口之水果，樹將不徵稅。
(c) Dr. Johnson, our family doctor cannot come today.
詹生醫師，我們的家庭醫師今天不能來。
本句是向詹生醫師傳達一項訊息。
(d) Dr. Johnson, our family doctor, cannot come today.
我們的家庭醫師詹生今天不能來。 本句中our family doctor 是Dr. Johnson 的同位語。
常用的英文標點符號有十二種，它們是：
l.Apostrophe 上標點(') 2.Comma 逗號(,) 3.Colon 冒號(:) 4.Dash 破折號(—)5.Exclamation Point 驚嘆號(!) 6.Hyphen 連字號(-) 7.Parentheses 括號( ) 8.Period 句號(．) 9.Question Mark 問號(?) lO.Quotation Marks 引號("…") 11.Semicolon 分號(;) l2.Triple Dots 刪節號(…)
現將各種標點符號的用法分別說明如后:
l. 上標點(')
(l)表示字母的省略。Can't you read those road signs?
(2)表示數字的省略。Today is Thursday, June 1, '89.
(3)表示字母的複數。There are five s’s in “sleeplessness.”
(4)表示單字的複數。Our teacher told us not to use so many so’s.
(5)表示數字的複數。Her 7’s and 9’s look alike.
(6)表示所有格。It’s Vice Burn’s umbrella.
2. 逗號(，)
(1) 用在以and ,but ,for, nor ,or ,so ,yet等連接詞連接的兩個主要子句之間。 My father is fond of fishing, but my mother prefers hiking.
(2) 在複合句中，如果附屬子句在前，主要子句在後，用在附屬子句之後。
While I was making a telephone call, someone knocked at my door．
注意：如果主要子句在前，則不用逗號。
(3) 用以分開非限制形容詞子句與主要子句。
Her father, who is a famous scholar, teaches English.
(4) 用以分開非限制同位語。
Kent Howard, my English teacher, is from America.
(5) 用在yes, no ,well等字之後。
(a) Yes, he is a hard-working student.
(b) No, it is impossible.
(c) Well, you may go if you insist.
(6) 向人說話時，用在對方名字或稱謂之後，之前或前後。
(a) John, come here.
(b) Open the door, John.
(c) It is, Sir, not my fault.
(7) 用以分開引用句
(a) “You are beautiful,” he said.
(b) Our teacher said, “Freedom is not license.”
(c) “No,” she said, “I was just testing your patience.”
(8) 用以分開星期，月日，年份。
On Sunday, May 28, 1989, her first child was born.
(9) 用以分開地名、省名、國名、街道名、巷弄名等。
Candy lives at 4 Alley 10, Lane 76, Ching Hua Street, Section 4, Taipei, Taiwan.
(10)用以分開一系列的單字，片語或子句。
(a) Her mother sells tomatoes, potatoes, and peaches.
(b) She ran up the stairs, across the porch, and into the house.
(c) We all agreed that she was beautiful, that she was intelligent, and that she was ambitious.
(11)用以表示字的省略。
The lion is the symbol of courage; the lamb, of meekness. (the lamb is the symbol of meekness).
(12)用在such as及especially的前面。
(a) They enjoy outdoor sports, such as hiking and riding.
(b)He likes all extracurricular activities, especially basketball playing.
(13)用以分開「乃此非彼」的結構。
He wanted to see Cliff, not Steve.
(14)用在追問句之前。
It is warm today, isn’t it?
3. 冒號(：)(1) 用在解釋或逐項列舉之前(在as follows, the following as these或given below之後)。
(a) I bought the following articles: sheets, towels, and blankets．
(b) The table lamp consists of three parts: a stand, a bulb, and a shade.
(2) 用在正式或事務信函中稱謂之後。
Dear Sir: Dear Mr. Reagan: Gentlemen:
注意:在非正式或交際信函中稱謂之後用逗號。
Dear Mary, Dear John,
(3) 用在數字之後，表示時間。
Our class starts at 8:10 a.m. and ends at 12:00 noon.
(4) 用在較長的引用句或正式問句之前。
(a) This is my favorite quotation: “It is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today and reality of tomorrow.”
(b) The question is: What can we do for our country?
(5) 用在講釋第一個主要子句的第二個主要句子之前。
Her intention is obvious: she wants to marry him.
4. 破折號(--)(1) 表示猶豫，句意的暫時中斷, 或思想的突然中斷。
(a) I—I don’t know. You’d better ask her.
(b) The entire teaching facilities—console, tapes, earphones, and tape recorders—were stolen last night.
(c) I’ll give—let’s see, what can I give?
(2) 用以強調同位語。
She has only one interest—food.
(3) 用在結語之前。
Professor Chu collects postage stamps, coins, sea shells, matchboxes—in short,
anything that interests him.
(4) 用在未完成句之後。She said, “He was everything to me, but--”
5. 驚嘆號(！) (1) 用在以強烈情感說出的字句之後。
(a) What a surprise!
(b) How beautiful a girl she is!
(c) What a beautiful girl she is!
(2) 用在祈使句之後。
(a) Help! My house is on fire!
(b) Be quiet!
6. 連字句(-) (1) 用以表示分數或連接由21至99中的十位數及個位數。
(a) Three-fourths of the freshman students are girls.
(b) There are twenty-two boy student and ninety-eight girl students in the Department of English.
(2) 用在行末連接分寫的單字。
He is a graduate student of National Chengchi Uni- versity.
(3) 用以連接複合字中的各字。
We had a heart-to-heart talk last night.
7. 括號( )用來在句中附加評論或解釋。
I saw the two students (they are lovers) kissing each other.
8. 句號( . )
(1) 用在敘述句，祈使句及禮貌問句之後。
(a) I wish to enter an ideal university.
(b) Turn in your papers, please.
(c) Will you please send me a copy of your university catalogue.
(2) 用在間接問句之後。
She asked if you would come to her birthday party.
(3) 用在縮寫名字和其他字的第一個字母之後，或縮寫字之後。
(a) Prof. W. W. Wang has returned to Taipei. (如果不用名字，則要用 Professor Wang.)
(b) Dr. Tang earned his Ph. D. degree from Georgetown University in Washington, D. C. (District of Columbia).
9. 問號(？)
(1) 用在直接問句之後。
Do you find English writing difficult?
(2) 用在括號中表示存疑。
Chaucer was born in 1340(?) and died in 1400.
10. 引號(“ ”)
(1) 用在引用句的前後。 (a) Our teacher said, “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.”
(b) “I don’t like her, ” she explained, “because she is far too proud.”
(2) 如果引用句本身是敘述句而且位在一個問句之後，必須先用引號，再用問號。
Did he say, “I am going to college next year”?
如果引用句本身是問句，則必須先用問號，再用引號。
Did he say, “Are you going to college next year?”
(3) 引用文句有兩段或兩段以上時，只在每一段開始時和最後一段結束時用引號。
“Mom and Dad did not come home with them because Sunday was parents’ day off; the boys did the housework and cooked the meal of the week, while Father and Mother stayed on for church service.
“But by the time diner was ready the boy had climbed into bed. The shoe had to be cut off his swollen and discolored leg. Why on earth hadn’t he told somebody? Go quick and fetch the doctor!”
(4) 引用句中另有引用句時, 用單引號表示
She said, “ I quite agree to the saying ‘To love and to be loved is the greatest happiness on earth’.”
注意：美式英文中，雙引號在外，單引號在內，英式英文中恰好相反。
11. 分號 (；)
(1) 用以連接兩個或兩個以上的主要子句。
(a) The singular form is mouse; the plural form is mice.
(b) she made up her mind; she laid her plans; she began her trip.
(2) 用在連接兩個主要子句的連接副詞 (consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, so, still, then, therefore, thus, etc.)之前。
He did not pass the examination; therefore, he was unhappy.
(3) 用在連接兩個主要子句的連接詞 (and, but, or, nor, for)之前，當主要子句本身有逗號時。
Henry, a freshman, lives at home; but Karl, his brother, does not.
12. 刪節號 (…)
用以表示引用句中省略的文字。如刪節號用在句尾，另加原句句尾的標點符號，如果是問號，則在刪節號之後加問號 (…?)
In his essay LUCK Winston Churchill wrote: “The longer one lives, the more one realizes that everything depends upon chance… a man’s own contribution to his life story is continually by an external superior power.”
注意：英文中表示「等等」用etc.而不是用刪節號(…)。
英文標點符號 Punctuation 教學 (1)，(Comma 逗號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d1.htm (2)．(Period 句號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d2.htm (3)；(Semicolon分號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d3.htm (4)：(Colon 冒號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d4.htm (5)？&！(Question mark問號& Exclamation point 驚嘆號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d5.htm (6) ─& - (Dash破折號& hyphen連字號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d6.htm (7) ( ) & [ ] (Parentheses 圓括號& Brackets括號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d7.htm (8) “ ” & ．．． (引號 & 省略號) http://www.mychinesetea.net/enghome_d8.htm
HOW TO USE ENGLISH PUNCTUATION CORRECTLY
1. End your sentences with a period (full stop), question mark, or exclamation point (exclamation mark or shout mark).
1-1 Use the period (full stop) to denote a full stop at the end of a statement.
The period ( . ) is one of the most commonly used punctuation marks.
The accessibility of the computer has increased tremendously over
the past several years.
1-2 The question mark ( ? ), used at the end of a sentence, suggests an
interrogatory remark or inquiry.
What has humanity done about the growing concern of
global warming?
1-3 The exclamation point (exclamation mark, shout mark)( ! )
suggests excitement or emphasis in a sentence.
I can't believe how difficult the exam was!
2. Use the semicolon and colon properly.
o The semicolon ( ; ) has a few uses.
§ Use a semicolon to separate two related but independent clauses. Note that, if the two clauses are very wordy or complex, it is better to use a period instead.
§ People continue to worry about the future; our failure to conserve resources has put the world at risk.
§ Use a semicolon to separate a complex series of items, especially those that contain commas.
§ I went to the show with Jake, my close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend, Jenna.
o The colon ( : ) has multiple uses.
§ Use the colon to introduce a list. Be careful not to use a colon when denoting a regular series. Usually, the word following suggests the use of a colon. Use only after a full sentence which ends in a noun.
§ The professor has given me three options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit assignment, or to fail the class.
§ INCORRECT - The Easter basket contained: Easter eggs, chocolate rabbits, and other candy.
3. Understand the differences between a hyphen and a dash.
o The hyphen ( - ) was once a common punctuation mark on typewriters, when a long word might have been split between two lines. The hyphen is still used in a number of other areas:
§ Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make the word easier to read. If you were to leave the hyphen out of a word like re-examine, it would be reexamine, which would be harder to read. Understand that some words do not require a hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo. Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.
When you use a hyphen, the two words have to rely on each other. Example: re-arrange.
§ Cara is his ex-girlfriend.
§ Use hyphens when creating compound words from separate words.
§ The up-to-date newspaper reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.
§ Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen.
§ There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck. ("The amount is one hundred and eighty" is a common error in US English, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" is usually included.)
§ Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred—if the number is used as an adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated (I have one-hundred tapes). Otherwise, a hyphen should only occur if a number greater than 100 occurs within the larger number, e.g., He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.
o The dash ( -- or — ) should be used when making a brief interruption within a statement, a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification. It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement, such as for further clarification, but should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally. Try to remove the statement within the dash from the sentence; if the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, then you may need to revise. There should be spaces before and after the dash in British English.
§ An introductory clause is a brief phrase that comes—yes, you guessed it—at the beginning of a sentence.
§ This is the end of our sentence—or so we thought.
4. Use the double quotation mark and single quotation mark/apostrophe for different purposes.
o The double quotation ( " ) encloses a direct quotation, whether made by a person or taken from a piece of literature.
§ "I can't wait to see him perform!" John exclaimed.
§ According to the article, the value of the dollar in developing nations is "strongly influenced by its aesthetic value, rather than its face value."
o The single quotation mark or apostrophe ( ' ) has a variety of uses.
§ Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. Be aware of the difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use 's, whereas the plural version of that singular noun will use s'. Also, be mindful of nouns that are always considered to be plural, such as children and people — here, you should use 's. Be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as hers and its (it's is used only for the contractions of it is and it has). Their is possessive without apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomes theirs.
§ The hamster's water tube needs to be refilled.
§ A singular noun with possession.
§ In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be changed.
§ A pluralized singular noun with possession.
§ These children's test scores are the highest in the nation.
§ A plural noun with possession.
§ Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction. For example, cannot becomes can't, you are becomes you're, and they have becomes they've.
§ Use the single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
§ Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"
§ Note that an apostrophe is not used with 's' to make a plural noun from a singular. This is a very common mistake and should be avoided.
§ CORRECT - apple → apples
§ INCORRECT - apple → apple's
5. Indicate a break or pause within a sentence with the comma ( , ). This is another commonly used punctuation mark. There are several instances where you might use a comma:
o Use the comma when denoting an appositive, or a break within a sentence that supplements and adds information to the subject.
§ Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the developer of the operating system known as Windows.
o Use the comma when denoting a series. This is a set of three or more "list" items within a sentence. To save space in newspapers, some writers may omit the last comma.
§ The fruit basket contained apples, bananas, and oranges.
§ The computer store was filled with video games, computer hardware and other electronic paraphernalia.
o Use a comma if your subject has two or more adjectives describing it. This is somewhat similar to a series, except that it is incorrect to place a comma after the final adjective.
§ CORRECT - The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.
§ INCORRECT - The powerful, resonating, sound caught our attention.
o Use a comma when referring to a city and state. It is also necessary to use a comma to separate the city and state from the rest of the sentence.
§ I am originally from Freehold, NJ.
§ Los Angeles, CA, is one of the largest cities in the United States.
o Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase (which is usually one or more prepositional phrases) from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase briefly introduces the sentence, but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate, and it therefore should be separated from the main clause by a comma.
§ After the show, John and I went out to dinner.
§ On the back of my couch, my cat's claws have slowly been carving a large hole.
o Use the comma to separate two independent clauses. Having two independent clauses in a sentence simply means that you can split the sentence into two. If your sentence contains two independent clauses that are separated by a conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor, so, or yet ), place a comma before the conjunction.
§ Ryan went to the beach yesterday, but he forgot his sunscreen.
§ Water bills usually rise during the summer, as people are thirstier during hot and humid days.
o Use a comma when making a direct address. When calling one's attention by name, separate the person's name and the rest of the statement with a comma. Note that this kind of comma is used rarely in writing, because this is something that we do normally while speaking.
§ Amber, could you come here for a moment?
o Use a comma to separate direct quotations. A comma should come after the last word before a quotation that is being introduced. It is not necessary to use a comma in an indirect quote. A comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting an entire statement.
§ While I was at his house, John asked me if I wanted anything to eat.
§ An indirect quotation that does not require a comma.
§ While I was at his house, John asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"
§ A direct quotation.
§ According to the client, the lawyer was "lazy and incompetent."
§ A partial direct quotation that does not require a comma.
6. Understand the difference between parentheses, brackets, and braces.
o Use parentheses ( ( ) ) to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal comment. Be sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis.
§ Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.
§ Used for clarification. Here, commas can replace the parentheses.
§ You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).
§ An afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses — not before the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable here, and is better off with a period or a semicolon.
§ Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always interchangeable (I disagree).
§ A personal comment.
o Use brackets ( [ ] ) to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing. Brackets are often used to encompass the word "sic" (Latin for thus), suggesting that the previous word or phrase was written "as is", with the error intended to be displayed.
§ "[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of the incident.
§ "It was absolutely devastating!" – the actual quote by Susan Smith.
o Braces ( { } ) are most widely used in denoting a numeric set in mathematics. Though generally uncommon, braces can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal, independent choices.
§ { 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }
§ Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.
7. Know how to use the slash ( / ).
o Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate. The phrase "and/or" suggests that a series of options are not mutually exclusive.
§ "To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate."
o The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be sure to add spaces between your slashes here.
§ "Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / life is but a dream."
o The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns. By replacing "and" with a slash, you suggest that there is equal important to both characteristics. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis where "and" may not do so—as well as as not to confuse the reader. You can also do the same for "or", as in "his/her". However you should not use the slash to separate independent clauses, as shown below.
§ "The student and part-time employee has very little free time." → "The student/part-time employee has very little free time."
§ "Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" → "Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall? – This is incorrect.
INVERTED SENTENCE 倒裝句
倒 裝 句
索引 : ( 複合句 : 複雜句 : 動詞在句首的倒裝 ) ( 受詞置於句首 : 補語在句首 : 分詞 : 直接敘述法 )
倒裝就是把動詞置於主詞的前面，英文句子的倒裝是常有的現象。廣義而言，倒裝句包括
(1) 疑問句，(2)祈願句， (3) 為強調， 訊息焦點，引起注意，或為使句子的 意義清晰等等理由，
而形成的倒裝句。 疑問句和祈願句前面已談過在此不再多述。本文重點放在第 (3)項。大部分句子的
倒裝要領和 yes - no 疑問句的形成方法一樣，只差句尾沒有問號。也就是 (1)有 be動詞 時，則將 be 動詞
移至主詞之前。(2) 有助動詞時則將其置於主詞之前，無助動詞時則加 do, does,或 did。閱讀時，如看到
倒裝句不能立刻瞭解其意，就將其還原為五基本句型之一的原型，就比較容易解決。
I. 副詞置句首的倒裝句
(1) 強調否定的副詞放在句首 ：下列是一些此類的否定詞 ,通常用在正式的文體。 few, little, hardly,
scarcely, seldom, never, none, nobody, nothing, nowhere, no sooner, not until, not at all, not for a moment,
in no way, on no account, by no means, under no circumstances (決不) ( ..... no ..... 的片語)
It is seldom wise to neglect one's own health. → Seldom is it wise to neglect one's own health.
I shall never forget your kindness to me. → Never shall I forget your kindness to me.
I did not find I had left my key in the office until I got home.
→ Not until I got home did I find I had left my key in the office.
There has never been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
→ Never has there been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
The teacher had no sooner entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
→ No sooner had the teacher entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
The teacher had hardly / scarcely entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
→ Hardly / Scarcely had the teacher entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
Nowhere could the boy find his lost dog.
Little did he dream that he should won the first prize.
Not only did it thunder but it also poured last night.
By no means is your performance in study satisfactory. ( Your performance in study is by no means satisfactory.)
On no account are you to go playing without finishing your homework first.
(2) Only + adverb (phrase or clause) : 常見於正式的体裁中。
Only in the night is an owl active in chasing the game. (獵物)
Only in this way can you solve the problem you have met now.
Only when one loses one's health, does one realize its importance.
Only in the exhibition in Tainan county have we seen such a splendid orchid .
(3) 地方 / 方位 副詞，和感嘆句的倒裝 : 地方 / 方位副詞置句首而後面的是不及物動詞 時常用倒裝，
不用 do 或 did 於主詞之前， 常出現於文學和描述文章。
Under a tree were sitting three old farmers of the village.
Beside the desk / Behind the counter stood a tall man with silver hair.
From Taiwan come a lot of the most beautiful orchids.
From within the house floated the tender melody of music.
Off went Steve! Off he went ! Back came the girls! Back they came!
Down fell the big tall tree! Away flew the birds! Away they flew!
Here comes the bus! (= Here it comes!) Here you are. (主詞是名詞要倒裝，代名詞則不倒裝)
Here is the pen that you are looking for.
※ 在 Practical English Usage by Michael Swan 一書中對感嘆句有如下的敘述。
(a) 否定疑問句的形式可當感嘆句用，但其意是肯定。
Hasn't she grown! (= She has grown a lot!) Wasn't it a great match! (真是一場好比賽)
Isn't it cold! (好冷)
(b) 非否定疑問句的形式也可當感嘆句用，常見於美式英語。
Am I hungry! ( 我好餓阿) Am I fed up! (我真煩死了) Did he look annoyed! (他看起來好煩的樣子)
(c) 在舊式文學中，how 和 what 後面的感嘆句偶而也用感嘆句。
How beautiful are the flowers! What a peaceful place is Mount Ali!
※ 地方副詞在句首而句子的動詞是及物動詞時，則不必倒裝。但被動語態時仍必倒裝。
In his hand he / the boy held a bottle of water.
Behind him he felt the gunfire becoming fiercer and fiercer.
From the top of the hill we had a full view of the beautiful village.
Into one of the poor families was born a boy who was named Parker.
On the white wall was printed a red shape of a hand.
※大學文法與修辭 ，計湘全著 在 p. 292 對 here 和 there 用法說明與一般的說法寬鬆可供參考。
以 here 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則要倒裝。主詞是代名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " Here he comes." 或 "Here comes he." 都對。
以 there 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " There stood Steve." 或 " There Steve stood." 都對。
(4) 表次數的副詞 : 這種副詞只為強調，不倒裝也可以。
Twice within the 20th century were there world wars which killed tens of millions of people.
Often have we heard that more and more people lost their jobs.
Many a time did the kind old woman give food to the beggars. ( 回 頁 首 )
(5) 放在句首的副詞修飾全句的，不能倒裝。
On Sundays we are allowed to go shopping. Apparently the boy did not do his homework.
At twelve all the workers stop working and have their lunch.
Luckily the poor worker won a big prize in the lottery.
II. 複合句 : (1) 肯定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 , too. → 肯定句 + and + so + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
(2) 否定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 + not, either. → 否定句 + and + nor / neither + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
兩否定句的主詞同屬一個人，則只能用 nor ，不能用 neither。主詞不同人，則 nor, neither 都可用。
He works hard and you do, too. → He works hard and so do you.
Edward doesn't drink, nor does he smoke. Mia cannot swim, nor can she play baseball.
I am not good at chess, nor do I wish to be.
He didn't work hard, and you didn't either. → He didn't work hard, and nor / neither did you.
You cannot fix the computer, nor / neither can my brother.
A: I like chocolate very much. B: So do I. ( 非複合句 )
III. 複雜句 ：
(1) 讓步子句 : Although / Though + S + V + n / adj. / adv., .... → N / Adj. / Adv. + as / though + S + V, ....
Although she is a girl, she is very brave. → Girl as she is, she is very brave. ( girl 不加冠詞)
Though he is poor, he still helps those who need help.→ Poor as he is , he still helps those who need help.
Although he worked hard, he couldn't support his family. → Hard as he worked, he couldn't support ....
Tired though we were, we kept climbing up to the top of the mountain. (不可用 although)
Dangerous though it was, he was confident that they would win.
(2) 假設語氣的倒裝 ：在文學体中常用。
If I were a billionaire, I could buy a big house.→ Were I a billionaire, I could buy a big house.
If I should miss the bus, I would go by taxi. → Should I miss the bus, I would go by taxi.
If I had studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
→ Had I studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
(3) 比較 和 名詞子句 有需要可倒裝 , as 在文學體中有時也用倒裝。
The parents know their children better than do the others.
Mr. Wang is a Buddhist, as are most of his friends.
The child watches TV every day as do most of his classmates.
Tell me who is that guy who is playing tennis there.
Do you know who is the boy running along the sidewalk?
Children in Taiwan learn much the same things as do those of the same age in Japan.
IV. 動詞在句首的倒裝 :
Try as he would, he could not finish the work in time. ← Though he would try, he could not ....
Come what may, I have made up my mind not to give up. ← Whatever may come, I have made up ....
Come what will, they will never yield. ← Whatever will come, they will never yield.
Report what you may, be faithful to the truth. ← Whatever you may report, be faithful to the truth.
Be he rich or poor, he shall be treated equally. ← Whether he is rich or poor, he shall be treated equally.
V. 受詞置於句首如果是否定的，則要倒裝，否則不用倒裝。如 I.(1) 所列的 none, nobody, nothing。
No advice did my teacher give me. (= My teacher gave me no advice.)
Nothing could we do in such a devastating forest fire. Nobody did I tell the secret.
Not a word did they say. ( They did not say a word.)
cf. Hardly a word is spoken. Hardly anybody was able to do it. 在此 hardly 是修飾 a word, anybody,
正如 No word was spoken. Nobody was able to do it . 一樣。
Democracy and freedom we believe in. Anne only he could love.= He could love Anne only.
The speech he gave yesterday, I think of as nonsense. Whether he will come or not, no one knows.
The history one can know, but the future no one can tell.
We eat what we can, and what we can't , we can.
(= We eat what can eat, and we can (裝罐)what we can't eat.)
VI. 補語在句首的倒裝 :
Happy is the country that has no history. (諺) Happy are the pure in heart, they will see God. (the Bible)
Hard is the way that leads to mastering any language, especially English.
A brave man is Steve who fought against the robber and caught him.
So shocked was the girl that she couldn't utter a word.
Interesting and instructive is the story book that you bought me last week.
VII. 分詞 ( participle ) :
Lying on the bench was a beautiful cat. Getting out of the car was her aunt.
Walking with the boy in the park was his uncle Mr. Wang.
Related to the increasing population are the problems of housing and food supply. ( 回 頁 首 )
Included in this plan will be a center for poor children.
VIII.直接敘述法 / 引句 (direct narration) : 直接引句後面，動詞 (reporting verbs) 如 say, ask, reply, answer,
deny, explain, remind, think, warn, etc. 在書寫文裡常用倒裝，不用 do 或 did。直接引句原是
上述動詞的受詞 ， 在此將其移到句首而產生倒裝 ，不倒裝也可以。
"We had a good time last week." said John. " I shall be 18 tomorrow." whispered Bill.
"Who's Mr. Wang?" shouted the man at the door. "What's going on there?" asked Henry.
索引 : ( 複合句 : 複雜句 : 動詞在句首的倒裝 ) ( 受詞置於句首 : 補語在句首 : 分詞 : 直接敘述法 )
倒裝就是把動詞置於主詞的前面，英文句子的倒裝是常有的現象。廣義而言，倒裝句包括
(1) 疑問句，(2)祈願句， (3) 為強調， 訊息焦點，引起注意，或為使句子的 意義清晰等等理由，
而形成的倒裝句。 疑問句和祈願句前面已談過在此不再多述。本文重點放在第 (3)項。大部分句子的
倒裝要領和 yes - no 疑問句的形成方法一樣，只差句尾沒有問號。也就是 (1)有 be動詞 時，則將 be 動詞
移至主詞之前。(2) 有助動詞時則將其置於主詞之前，無助動詞時則加 do, does,或 did。閱讀時，如看到
倒裝句不能立刻瞭解其意，就將其還原為五基本句型之一的原型，就比較容易解決。
I. 副詞置句首的倒裝句
(1) 強調否定的副詞放在句首 ：下列是一些此類的否定詞 ,通常用在正式的文體。 few, little, hardly,
scarcely, seldom, never, none, nobody, nothing, nowhere, no sooner, not until, not at all, not for a moment,
in no way, on no account, by no means, under no circumstances (決不) ( ..... no ..... 的片語)
It is seldom wise to neglect one's own health. → Seldom is it wise to neglect one's own health.
I shall never forget your kindness to me. → Never shall I forget your kindness to me.
I did not find I had left my key in the office until I got home.
→ Not until I got home did I find I had left my key in the office.
There has never been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
→ Never has there been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
The teacher had no sooner entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
→ No sooner had the teacher entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
The teacher had hardly / scarcely entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
→ Hardly / Scarcely had the teacher entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
Nowhere could the boy find his lost dog.
Little did he dream that he should won the first prize.
Not only did it thunder but it also poured last night.
By no means is your performance in study satisfactory. ( Your performance in study is by no means satisfactory.)
On no account are you to go playing without finishing your homework first.
(2) Only + adverb (phrase or clause) : 常見於正式的体裁中。
Only in the night is an owl active in chasing the game. (獵物)
Only in this way can you solve the problem you have met now.
Only when one loses one's health, does one realize its importance.
Only in the exhibition in Tainan county have we seen such a splendid orchid .
(3) 地方 / 方位 副詞，和感嘆句的倒裝 : 地方 / 方位副詞置句首而後面的是不及物動詞 時常用倒裝，
不用 do 或 did 於主詞之前， 常出現於文學和描述文章。
Under a tree were sitting three old farmers of the village.
Beside the desk / Behind the counter stood a tall man with silver hair.
From Taiwan come a lot of the most beautiful orchids.
From within the house floated the tender melody of music.
Off went Steve! Off he went ! Back came the girls! Back they came!
Down fell the big tall tree! Away flew the birds! Away they flew!
Here comes the bus! (= Here it comes!) Here you are. (主詞是名詞要倒裝，代名詞則不倒裝)
Here is the pen that you are looking for.
※ 在 Practical English Usage by Michael Swan 一書中對感嘆句有如下的敘述。
(a) 否定疑問句的形式可當感嘆句用，但其意是肯定。
Hasn't she grown! (= She has grown a lot!) Wasn't it a great match! (真是一場好比賽)
Isn't it cold! (好冷)
(b) 非否定疑問句的形式也可當感嘆句用，常見於美式英語。
Am I hungry! ( 我好餓阿) Am I fed up! (我真煩死了) Did he look annoyed! (他看起來好煩的樣子)
(c) 在舊式文學中，how 和 what 後面的感嘆句偶而也用感嘆句。
How beautiful are the flowers! What a peaceful place is Mount Ali!
※ 地方副詞在句首而句子的動詞是及物動詞時，則不必倒裝。但被動語態時仍必倒裝。
In his hand he / the boy held a bottle of water.
Behind him he felt the gunfire becoming fiercer and fiercer.
From the top of the hill we had a full view of the beautiful village.
Into one of the poor families was born a boy who was named Parker.
On the white wall was printed a red shape of a hand.
※大學文法與修辭 ，計湘全著 在 p. 292 對 here 和 there 用法說明與一般的說法寬鬆可供參考。
以 here 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則要倒裝。主詞是代名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " Here he comes." 或 "Here comes he." 都對。
以 there 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " There stood Steve." 或 " There Steve stood." 都對。
(4) 表次數的副詞 : 這種副詞只為強調，不倒裝也可以。
Twice within the 20th century were there world wars which killed tens of millions of people.
Often have we heard that more and more people lost their jobs.
Many a time did the kind old woman give food to the beggars. ( 回 頁 首 )
(5) 放在句首的副詞修飾全句的，不能倒裝。
On Sundays we are allowed to go shopping. Apparently the boy did not do his homework.
At twelve all the workers stop working and have their lunch.
Luckily the poor worker won a big prize in the lottery.
II. 複合句 : (1) 肯定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 , too. → 肯定句 + and + so + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
(2) 否定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 + not, either. → 否定句 + and + nor / neither + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
兩否定句的主詞同屬一個人，則只能用 nor ，不能用 neither。主詞不同人，則 nor, neither 都可用。
He works hard and you do, too. → He works hard and so do you.
Edward doesn't drink, nor does he smoke. Mia cannot swim, nor can she play baseball.
I am not good at chess, nor do I wish to be.
He didn't work hard, and you didn't either. → He didn't work hard, and nor / neither did you.
You cannot fix the computer, nor / neither can my brother.
A: I like chocolate very much. B: So do I. ( 非複合句 )
III. 複雜句 ：
(1) 讓步子句 : Although / Though + S + V + n / adj. / adv., .... → N / Adj. / Adv. + as / though + S + V, ....
Although she is a girl, she is very brave. → Girl as she is, she is very brave. ( girl 不加冠詞)
Though he is poor, he still helps those who need help.→ Poor as he is , he still helps those who need help.
Although he worked hard, he couldn't support his family. → Hard as he worked, he couldn't support ....
Tired though we were, we kept climbing up to the top of the mountain. (不可用 although)
Dangerous though it was, he was confident that they would win.
(2) 假設語氣的倒裝 ：在文學体中常用。
If I were a billionaire, I could buy a big house.→ Were I a billionaire, I could buy a big house.
If I should miss the bus, I would go by taxi. → Should I miss the bus, I would go by taxi.
If I had studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
→ Had I studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
(3) 比較 和 名詞子句 有需要可倒裝 , as 在文學體中有時也用倒裝。
The parents know their children better than do the others.
Mr. Wang is a Buddhist, as are most of his friends.
The child watches TV every day as do most of his classmates.
Tell me who is that guy who is playing tennis there.
Do you know who is the boy running along the sidewalk?
Children in Taiwan learn much the same things as do those of the same age in Japan.
IV. 動詞在句首的倒裝 :
Try as he would, he could not finish the work in time. ← Though he would try, he could not ....
Come what may, I have made up my mind not to give up. ← Whatever may come, I have made up ....
Come what will, they will never yield. ← Whatever will come, they will never yield.
Report what you may, be faithful to the truth. ← Whatever you may report, be faithful to the truth.
Be he rich or poor, he shall be treated equally. ← Whether he is rich or poor, he shall be treated equally.
V. 受詞置於句首如果是否定的，則要倒裝，否則不用倒裝。如 I.(1) 所列的 none, nobody, nothing。
No advice did my teacher give me. (= My teacher gave me no advice.)
Nothing could we do in such a devastating forest fire. Nobody did I tell the secret.
Not a word did they say. ( They did not say a word.)
cf. Hardly a word is spoken. Hardly anybody was able to do it. 在此 hardly 是修飾 a word, anybody,
正如 No word was spoken. Nobody was able to do it . 一樣。
Democracy and freedom we believe in. Anne only he could love.= He could love Anne only.
The speech he gave yesterday, I think of as nonsense. Whether he will come or not, no one knows.
The history one can know, but the future no one can tell.
We eat what we can, and what we can't , we can.
(= We eat what can eat, and we can (裝罐)what we can't eat.)
VI. 補語在句首的倒裝 :
Happy is the country that has no history. (諺) Happy are the pure in heart, they will see God. (the Bible)
Hard is the way that leads to mastering any language, especially English.
A brave man is Steve who fought against the robber and caught him.
So shocked was the girl that she couldn't utter a word.
Interesting and instructive is the story book that you bought me last week.
VII. 分詞 ( participle ) :
Lying on the bench was a beautiful cat. Getting out of the car was her aunt.
Walking with the boy in the park was his uncle Mr. Wang.
Related to the increasing population are the problems of housing and food supply. ( 回 頁 首 )
Included in this plan will be a center for poor children.
VIII.直接敘述法 / 引句 (direct narration) : 直接引句後面，動詞 (reporting verbs) 如 say, ask, reply, answer,
deny, explain, remind, think, warn, etc. 在書寫文裡常用倒裝，不用 do 或 did。直接引句原是
上述動詞的受詞 ， 在此將其移到句首而產生倒裝 ，不倒裝也可以。
"We had a good time last week." said John. " I shall be 18 tomorrow." whispered Bill.
"Who's Mr. Wang?" shouted the man at the door. "What's going on there?" asked Henry.
句子結合的技巧
句子結合的必要性
句子必須結合才能避免單調、味如嚼蠟，因為如果所有句子都很簡短且長度相等，它們必然會產生單調且暮氣沈沈。)寫作者必須使用不同的基本句子結構並變換句子的長度，才能使文章生動活潑、躍然紙上，讓讀者對文章愛不釋手、秉燭夜讀，天天夜未眠。這一頁我們將探討一般寫作者用來結合句子的一些技巧。
首先，我們來介紹英文的基本句子結構。視它們所含的子句數目和類型而定，我們可以將句子分成四大類：
單句 (simple) -- 一個獨立子句： We drove from Taipei to Kaohsiung in six hours.
合句 (compound) -- 一個以上的獨立子句：We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
複句 (complex) -- 一個獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
複合句 (compound-complex) -- 一個以上的獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised.
句子的結合
如上述，合句是由兩個或多個的獨立子句所構成。換言之，句子中至少有兩個獨立子句，而每個子句都可單獨存在。合句的子句可以一個分號 (相當少見) 來分開，或用對等連接詞 (連接詞的前面通常加一個逗點) 來連接。最常用的兩個對等連接詞是 and 和 but (其他對等連接詞為 or, for, yet 和 so)。這是最簡單的句子結合技巧：
Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science.
Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a curious man by nature.
注意：and 只不過是將一個子句與另一個子句連接在一起；而 but 也具有這種連接功能，但它亦使子句之間建立了某種關係。and 只是表示某件事在另一件事之後發生，而它們之間的邏輯關係不一定顯而易見或很重要。 but 這個字 (及其他對等連接詞) 使兩個子句之間具有略高一些的邏輯關係。
按這裡一下來溫習在以對等連接詞連接兩個獨立子句時逗點的使用規則。
句子元素的結合
在一個句子中，我們也可以結合不同的元素：主詞、動詞、受詞或整個述語、修飾語等等。注意：當句子的兩個元素以對等連接詞連接時 (與合句的兩個獨立子句的連接不同)，這個連接詞通常具有平衡的作用，所以無需逗點。主詞：當兩個或多個主詞係平行對稱時，它們通常可結合成複合主詞：
Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced Congress to raise money for the expedition.
受詞：當主詞平行地作用於兩個或多個受詞時，這些受詞可以結合起來：
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border.
He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States.
注意：這些受詞在結構和詞類上必須平行對稱，否則不能結合。按這裡一下來溫習平行的原則。
動詞與動狀詞：當主詞同時做兩件事時，這些動詞和動狀詞有時可以結合：
He studied the biological and natural sciences.
He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
注意：在連接上述元素時，"and learned" 的前面沒有逗點。
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.
He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with mathematical precision.
(或) In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
注意：在第二部分的結合例句中，我們不必重複不定詞的 "to" 來維持平行對稱，因為 "chart" 和 "analyze" 已經構成兩個動詞的對稱，若加 "to"，則變成重複的元素，可以省略，其結果還是一樣的。
修飾語：在適當的情況中，介系詞片語等修飾語也可結合起來：
Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
They also used recruits from various military outposts.
Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various military outposts.
注意：我們不必重複介系詞 "from"，道理與上述相同。
將一個子句附屬於另一子句
使兩個子句「對等」的動作只是將兩個子句連接起來而已；而將一個子句「附屬」於另一子句則會使兩個子句之間建立一種較複雜的關係，來表現其中一個子句在某方面仰賴另一子句的存在：一種時間前後的關係、一種因果關係、一種條件關係等等。
William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure.
Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.
They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
當我們使用子句的「主從關係」來連接子句時，標點符號的使用規則非常重要。在此，我們使用逗點來分開引導及插入語句。
使用同位格來結合句子
同位格可能是結合句子最有效的工具。同位格或同位格片語是句子中先前出現的人事物的另一名稱。你可以將同位格視為省略掉關係代名詞和連綴動詞的修飾子句。同位格通常是 (但並非都是) 插入語句，它的前後都要加逗點來與句子的其他部分分開。
Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
注意：在上面第二個句子中，Sacagawea 的名字是插入語句 (在結構上，句子已指出她是一名十五歲的印地安孕婦)，因此需要一對逗點來分開；然而，Charbonneau 的名字對句子的意思至關重要 (否則誰知道我們在談論哪位皮草商人呢?)，所以不是用一對逗點來分開。
使用分詞片語來結合句子
寫作者可以將某個句子改為修飾用的片語來將之整合到一個較大的句子結構中。
Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner.
This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part of Lewis's fellow explorers.
Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.
在上句中，分詞片語修飾句子的主詞 Lewis。這類片語通常用一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
使用獨立片語來結合句子
最優美 -- 也是最容易被誤解 -- 的結合句子的方法可能是獨立片語。這種片語通常出現在句子的開頭，包含一個名詞 (片語的主詞)，其後往往跟隨一個分詞；片語中可能還有其他修飾語。然而，獨立片語中沒有真正的動詞，且都是被當作插入語句，即引導用的修飾語；它被一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
獨立片語可能被誤為分詞片語，而這兩種片語之間的差異在結構上雖不是很顯著，但卻很重要。分詞片語不含 獨立片語的主詞與分詞的關係。分詞片語修飾它後面的獨立子句的主詞，而獨立片語則是修飾其後的整個子句。例如，在下面第一個結合後的句子中，獨立片語修飾主詞 Lewis，但它也修飾動詞，告訴我們他「在何種條件下」或「以何種方式」或「如何」使世界對他感到失望。因此，獨立片語係修飾後續的整個子句，所以不應跟不連結分詞混淆；不連結分詞必定是修飾緊跟其後的主詞。
Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.
Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
Lewis's long journey was finally completed.
His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
句子必須結合才能避免單調、味如嚼蠟，因為如果所有句子都很簡短且長度相等，它們必然會產生單調且暮氣沈沈。)寫作者必須使用不同的基本句子結構並變換句子的長度，才能使文章生動活潑、躍然紙上，讓讀者對文章愛不釋手、秉燭夜讀，天天夜未眠。這一頁我們將探討一般寫作者用來結合句子的一些技巧。
首先，我們來介紹英文的基本句子結構。視它們所含的子句數目和類型而定，我們可以將句子分成四大類：
單句 (simple) -- 一個獨立子句： We drove from Taipei to Kaohsiung in six hours.
合句 (compound) -- 一個以上的獨立子句：We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
複句 (complex) -- 一個獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
複合句 (compound-complex) -- 一個以上的獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised.
句子的結合
如上述，合句是由兩個或多個的獨立子句所構成。換言之，句子中至少有兩個獨立子句，而每個子句都可單獨存在。合句的子句可以一個分號 (相當少見) 來分開，或用對等連接詞 (連接詞的前面通常加一個逗點) 來連接。最常用的兩個對等連接詞是 and 和 but (其他對等連接詞為 or, for, yet 和 so)。這是最簡單的句子結合技巧：
Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science.
Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a curious man by nature.
注意：and 只不過是將一個子句與另一個子句連接在一起；而 but 也具有這種連接功能，但它亦使子句之間建立了某種關係。and 只是表示某件事在另一件事之後發生，而它們之間的邏輯關係不一定顯而易見或很重要。 but 這個字 (及其他對等連接詞) 使兩個子句之間具有略高一些的邏輯關係。
按這裡一下來溫習在以對等連接詞連接兩個獨立子句時逗點的使用規則。
句子元素的結合
在一個句子中，我們也可以結合不同的元素：主詞、動詞、受詞或整個述語、修飾語等等。注意：當句子的兩個元素以對等連接詞連接時 (與合句的兩個獨立子句的連接不同)，這個連接詞通常具有平衡的作用，所以無需逗點。主詞：當兩個或多個主詞係平行對稱時，它們通常可結合成複合主詞：
Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced Congress to raise money for the expedition.
受詞：當主詞平行地作用於兩個或多個受詞時，這些受詞可以結合起來：
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border.
He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States.
注意：這些受詞在結構和詞類上必須平行對稱，否則不能結合。按這裡一下來溫習平行的原則。
動詞與動狀詞：當主詞同時做兩件事時，這些動詞和動狀詞有時可以結合：
He studied the biological and natural sciences.
He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
注意：在連接上述元素時，"and learned" 的前面沒有逗點。
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.
He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with mathematical precision.
(或) In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
注意：在第二部分的結合例句中，我們不必重複不定詞的 "to" 來維持平行對稱，因為 "chart" 和 "analyze" 已經構成兩個動詞的對稱，若加 "to"，則變成重複的元素，可以省略，其結果還是一樣的。
修飾語：在適當的情況中，介系詞片語等修飾語也可結合起來：
Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
They also used recruits from various military outposts.
Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various military outposts.
注意：我們不必重複介系詞 "from"，道理與上述相同。
將一個子句附屬於另一子句
使兩個子句「對等」的動作只是將兩個子句連接起來而已；而將一個子句「附屬」於另一子句則會使兩個子句之間建立一種較複雜的關係，來表現其中一個子句在某方面仰賴另一子句的存在：一種時間前後的關係、一種因果關係、一種條件關係等等。
William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure.
Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.
They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
當我們使用子句的「主從關係」來連接子句時，標點符號的使用規則非常重要。在此，我們使用逗點來分開引導及插入語句。
使用同位格來結合句子
同位格可能是結合句子最有效的工具。同位格或同位格片語是句子中先前出現的人事物的另一名稱。你可以將同位格視為省略掉關係代名詞和連綴動詞的修飾子句。同位格通常是 (但並非都是) 插入語句，它的前後都要加逗點來與句子的其他部分分開。
Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
注意：在上面第二個句子中，Sacagawea 的名字是插入語句 (在結構上，句子已指出她是一名十五歲的印地安孕婦)，因此需要一對逗點來分開；然而，Charbonneau 的名字對句子的意思至關重要 (否則誰知道我們在談論哪位皮草商人呢?)，所以不是用一對逗點來分開。
使用分詞片語來結合句子
寫作者可以將某個句子改為修飾用的片語來將之整合到一個較大的句子結構中。
Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner.
This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part of Lewis's fellow explorers.
Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.
在上句中，分詞片語修飾句子的主詞 Lewis。這類片語通常用一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
使用獨立片語來結合句子
最優美 -- 也是最容易被誤解 -- 的結合句子的方法可能是獨立片語。這種片語通常出現在句子的開頭，包含一個名詞 (片語的主詞)，其後往往跟隨一個分詞；片語中可能還有其他修飾語。然而，獨立片語中沒有真正的動詞，且都是被當作插入語句，即引導用的修飾語；它被一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
獨立片語可能被誤為分詞片語，而這兩種片語之間的差異在結構上雖不是很顯著，但卻很重要。分詞片語不含 獨立片語的主詞與分詞的關係。分詞片語修飾它後面的獨立子句的主詞，而獨立片語則是修飾其後的整個子句。例如，在下面第一個結合後的句子中，獨立片語修飾主詞 Lewis，但它也修飾動詞，告訴我們他「在何種條件下」或「以何種方式」或「如何」使世界對他感到失望。因此，獨立片語係修飾後續的整個子句，所以不應跟不連結分詞混淆；不連結分詞必定是修飾緊跟其後的主詞。
Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.
Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
Lewis's long journey was finally completed.
His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
進行式、狀態與動態動詞
Progressive, Stative, and Dynamic Verbs
動詞的進行式是指事情現在、過去或未來「正在」發生。若時間為過去，那麼進行式是指事件持續短暫的時間："While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my room." 過去進行式亦暗示過去的某一動作並未全部完成。 (我們可從 "I did my homework." 和 "I was doing my homework."這兩個句子的比較窺其端倪。) 這在被動進行式結構中更加顯而易見："He was being strangled in the alley." 顯示動作未完成，可能是因為動作被一位見義勇為的市民所中斷，所以他才未被勒死；而簡單過去式："He was strangled in the alley." 則顯示動作已完成。可憐的傢伙，真是不幸!
進行式只能發生在動態動詞 (dynamic verbs) -- 亦即性質可以變化的動詞 -- 身上，而狀態動詞 (stative verbs) 則是性質不能變化的動詞。例如，我們不可以說："He is being tall." 或 "He is resembling his mother." 或 "I am wanting spaghetti for dinner." 或 "It is belonging to me." (我們應該說： "He is tall."、 "He resembles his mother."、 "I want spaghetti for dinner." 及 "It belongs to me.") 若要瞭解動態與狀態動詞之間的差異，最佳的方法是畫一個表，將這些動詞列在上面並予以分類，然後用它們來寫一些句子，試著看看可否使用進行式。
A. 動態動詞
A-1 動作動詞
I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing upstairs..與簡單式的意思幾乎完全一樣：I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
Verbs:eat, help, learn,listen,look at, whisper....
A-2 過程動詞
The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.與簡單現在式的意思幾乎完全一樣：The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
verbs: change,deteriorate, mature
A-3身體感覺動詞
"I feel bad" 和 "I am feeling bad" 的意思幾乎完全一樣。
verbs: itch, ache, hurt, feel
A-4變動事件動詞:
進行式表示事件的開始，與簡單現在式的意思不同。"She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" (當她正要掉到床下時，我剛好抓住她) "She falls out of bed every night." (她每晚都掉到床下)
verbs: arrive,die, fallland,leave,lose
A-5 瞬間動詞
進行式表示時間短暫且暗示動作重複。She is hitting her brother.He is jumping around the house
Verbs: hit,jump, kick,knock, nod, tap
動詞的進行式是指事情現在、過去或未來「正在」發生。若時間為過去，那麼進行式是指事件持續短暫的時間："While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my room." 過去進行式亦暗示過去的某一動作並未全部完成。 (我們可從 "I did my homework." 和 "I was doing my homework."這兩個句子的比較窺其端倪。) 這在被動進行式結構中更加顯而易見："He was being strangled in the alley." 顯示動作未完成，可能是因為動作被一位見義勇為的市民所中斷，所以他才未被勒死；而簡單過去式："He was strangled in the alley." 則顯示動作已完成。可憐的傢伙，真是不幸!
進行式只能發生在動態動詞 (dynamic verbs) -- 亦即性質可以變化的動詞 -- 身上，而狀態動詞 (stative verbs) 則是性質不能變化的動詞。例如，我們不可以說："He is being tall." 或 "He is resembling his mother." 或 "I am wanting spaghetti for dinner." 或 "It is belonging to me." (我們應該說： "He is tall."、 "He resembles his mother."、 "I want spaghetti for dinner." 及 "It belongs to me.") 若要瞭解動態與狀態動詞之間的差異，最佳的方法是畫一個表，將這些動詞列在上面並予以分類，然後用它們來寫一些句子，試著看看可否使用進行式。
A. 動態動詞
A-1 動作動詞
I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing upstairs..與簡單式的意思幾乎完全一樣：I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
Verbs:eat, help, learn,listen,look at, whisper....
A-2 過程動詞
The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.與簡單現在式的意思幾乎完全一樣：The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
verbs: change,deteriorate, mature
A-3身體感覺動詞
"I feel bad" 和 "I am feeling bad" 的意思幾乎完全一樣。
verbs: itch, ache, hurt, feel
A-4變動事件動詞:
進行式表示事件的開始，與簡單現在式的意思不同。"She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" (當她正要掉到床下時，我剛好抓住她) "She falls out of bed every night." (她每晚都掉到床下)
verbs: arrive,die, fallland,leave,lose
A-5 瞬間動詞
進行式表示時間短暫且暗示動作重複。She is hitting her brother.He is jumping around the house
Verbs: hit,jump, kick,knock, nod, tap
B.狀態動詞
B-1靜態的感覺和認知動詞
*I detest betel nut，但不是 I am detesting betel nut.I prefer cinnamon toast，但不是 I am preferring cinnamon toast.
Verbs:guess,hate,hear,imagine,impress,intend,know,like,love,mean ,mind,perceive,please,prefer,presuppose,realize,recallr,ecognize,regard,remember
B-2 關係動詞
I am sick，但不是 I am being sick.I own ten hectares of land，但不是 I am owning ten hectares.My brother owes me ten dollars" ，但不是 My brother is owing me ten dollars.
verbs:depend on,deserve,equal,fit,have,include,involve,lack,matter,need,owe,own,
belong toc,oncern,consist of,contain,cost
* 文法專家建議，我們應以「有意志」和「無意志」性質來思考狀態與動態之間的差異。現在讓我們來看看所謂動態形容詞 (主詞補語) 和狀態形容詞 (也是主詞補語) 之間的差異： "I am silly" 或 "I am being silly" 相對於 "I am tall." 我可以作主要不要成為一個愚蠢的人，是我自己選擇了做個愚蠢的人；但我沒辦法自己選擇長得很高。因此，"tall" 具有狀態 (或靜態) 性質，所以我們不可以說 "I am being tall" ；相對地，"silly" 具有動態性質，所以與這種性質在一起的動詞可以使用進行式。
這亦可適用於動詞。Two plus two equals four 二加二等於四)。equals 是靜態或狀態詞，所以不能有進行式；我們對這種事情沒辦法作選擇，也無法行使意志。(我們不可以說 "Two plus two is equalling four.") 同樣地，名詞亦可以表現有意志和無意志的性質。是故，"She is being a good worker" (因為他選擇讓自己成為優秀的勞工 -- 這是他自己做出的決定，即意志的行使)，但我們必須這麼說 "She is (不是 is being) an Olympic athlete" (因為一旦她成為選手，她就不必再行使意志使自己成為選手了)。
副詞子句
副詞子句
（一） 在句子裡，相當副詞作用的子句，稱為「副詞子句」。
英文的思考習慣，是把所有表示原因、方法、手段、假設、目的、讓步，
以副詞來表示，通常不放在主要子句中，而習慣上放在句子的前面或最後
（二） 引導「副詞子句」的連接詞有：wh~, how, whenever, while, as, since, till, until, after, as long as, as often as, as soon as, the moment that, no sooner …..than, by the time, any time, wherever, if, unless, in case, provided that, suppose that, on condition that, so that, once, because, now that, so that, though, although, even if, even though, whether等。
（三） 依其表達功能，有下例九種：
(1) 時間：i) when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since
ii) as long as, as soon as, by the time, every time, the first time
iii) the moment, the instant, the minute, hardly ( scarcely)—when ( before), no sooner --- than
iiii) now ( that) , once, whenever, immediately, directly
I was working when you telephoned.
Since 1973 , the price has risen very little.
I have been wearing glassed , since I was nine.
Mary saw Bill when he passed by the window.
John was not shocked until he saw the sick child.
No sooner had he graduated from the colleague than he found a job in an export company.
Hardly had he completed his work when he went home.
(2) 地方：where, wherever, whence, whither
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Mary followed Tom wherever he went.
Helen was told to stay where she was.
Don't ask me whence I came.﹝不要問我從哪裡來。﹞
A rudder guides the ship whither it wills.
﹝指導員引導船往它要到的地方去。﹞
(3) 狀態： (Adverb Clause of Manner)
i) as, as if, as though
ii) so that, such that, in such a way… that,
iii) in that
Do as I have told you.
David did his work as he was told.
Paul ran as if a mad dog was chasing him.
In some cities of the United States, schools are such
dangerous places that students carry knives and guns
to class.
In some cities of the United States, schools are so
dangerous that students carry knives and guns
to class.
(4) 原因或理由： i) because, since, as, for
ii)seeing that, being that, now that
iii) in that
As it was very cold, I did not go out.
Kevin failed in the examination because he was too lazy.
Since Samuel was still a boy, he was not admitted.
John is absent today because he is sick.
= John is absent today in that he is sick.
※ 依表示理由或原因的強度比較：because → since → as → for
(5) 目的： i) so… that, so that, lest, in order that
ii)lest.. should, in case, .. should, for fear that
He works hard so that he may succeed.
We eat so that we may live.
Don’t go near the pier lest you should fall into the water.
Hide it lest he see [【英】should see] it.
(6) 讓步： i) though, although, even if, even though
ii) whether … or not,
iii) no matter how (who, what , whether)
iiii) whatever, however, whoever, whichever, whenever, wherever
Though he is poor, he is honest.
Though Jimmy is young, he is an able executive.
No matter what you say, I will sue him for damages.
(7) 比較：i) as.. as, not so.. as
ii) more ( less )… than
iii) the more ( or .. er), the more ( or..er)
He is as tall as I am.
James works harder than George does.
The more money he has, the more he wants.
(8) 條件： i) if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition that
ii) Supposing ( granting, assuming) that, provided ( granted) that
If you don’t work hard, you will fail.
I shall come if Linda also comes.
The match will be played tomorrow if it stops raining now.
(9) 結果：so--- that, such—that, so that, so
He worked so hard that he succeeded.
He ran so quickly that Alice could not catch up.
Rose sang with such a beautiful voice that the audience was completely absorbed in the music.
(10) 限制: Adverb Clause of Restriction
i) as far as, so far as
ii) in that
I'll help you as far as I can. 我將盡我所能幫助你。
So far as ability is concerned, he is inferior to his brother.
就能力而言, 他劣於它的兄弟.
Latin differs from other languages in that it is not spoken.
拉丁語異於其他語言 沒有被談及
The commutation of a criminal’s sentence differs from a pardon in that it reduces the terms of punishment rather than excuses the criminal completely.
[ ] 減刑 sentence 宣判;課刑 pardon 特赦
criminal adj.犯罪的 n. 罪犯[C]
副詞子句與逗點的關係
1) 副詞子句在前面時, 子句後面有逗點
Even when binoculars are used to observe Saturn, the planet’s moons are invisible.
[ ] 雙筒望遠鏡 moon (行星的)衛星
2) 副詞子句在主詞與動詞之中, 是 插入法時, 前後各有一個逗點
The gorilla, while not as curious as the chimpanzee, shows more
Persistence and memory retention in solving a problem.
1. Chimpanzee 非洲黑猩猩 [ ] , gorilla 大猩猩
2. [ ]堅持;固執 3. [ ]保留;保持, 記憶力
3) 副詞子句在後時, 有時有逗點, 有時沒有
Bronze does not bend with use or grow brittle quickly, as copper does.
[ ]青銅[U] copper 銅[U] [ ]易碎的;易損壞的
The wallflower is so called because its weak stems often grow on walls and along stony cliffs for support.
4) so that, such that , as…. As, more (…er ) …. than,
in order that , in that 都在中間, 與主句之間無逗點
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Rubber can be made so elastic that it will stretch more than nine times its normal length.
[ ] 有彈性的
副詞子句的省略 Elliptical Adverb Clause [ l]
大部分的副詞子句不能省略, 只有 表比較的副詞子句 及其他副詞子句可以省略.
A) 表比較的副詞子句
A-1 less , more + ( adj, adv or participial) ….+ than
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
Donna was elected to be the board when he was 24 years old.
= Donna was elected to be the board when 24 years old.
A-2 as + ( adj, adv or participial) + as
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
We can provide you with as many reference books as needed.
= We can provide you with as many reference books as they are needed.
A-3 The more ( less ) + 主詞 或 The adj ( adv) + er, BE 動詞可省略
The higher the animal in the evolutionary chain, the more it can learn and the less it depends on instinct.
= The higher the animal is evolutionary chain, the…
B ) 其他副詞子句的省略, 省去的一定是 Be 動詞, 而省去的主詞必等於
主句的主詞
While traveling in arctic regions, the Aleut construct igloos as temporary winter shelters. = While they are traveling in arctic regions, ….
Football and baseball as played in the United States today are basically modifications of games that originated in England.
= Football and baseball as they are played in ….
EXERCISE:
.1. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe. (A) before ( B) since
2. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats. (A) Before (B) Since
3 You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad. ( A) since ( B) so that
4 更 正以下的 Incomplete sentence
Although Nina wrote stories and poems as a child since her first real successes did not come until she was twenty-three.
提示: Although + S + V = adverb clause
Since + S + V = adverb clause, 改為 main clause
Until + S + V = adverb clause
********************
Complete each adverb clause below with the correct word(s):
1. __________________ he always did well on his English tests, his parents were not surprised that he got an A.
When
Since
2. You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad.
since
so that
3. __________________ he thinks he's smart, he isn't.
Although
After
4. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe.
before
since
5. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats.
Before
Since
6. ________________ I came to this country, I didn't speak a word of English!
Before
Since
7. I'll let you know ________________ I come back.
because
after
8. He doesn't understand ________________ he doesn't speak French very well.
so that
because
9. He spoke slowly ________________ she would understand.
because
so that
10. ________________ you stop crying, I'll buy you an ice cream.
If
Since
答案: 1. since 2 so that 3 although 4 before 5 since
6 before 7 after 8 because 9 so that 10 if
*********************************
Recognize an adverb clause when you see one.
An adverb clause will meet three requirements.
First, it will contain a subject and verb.
You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?
Read these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.
******************************
Dependent clauses can function as adverbs. In this case, they are called adverb clauses. (Bet I didn't surprise you with that one.) An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb. As with regular old garden-variety adverbs, an adverb clause answers these questions:
Where?
Why?
When?
To what extent?
Under what condition?
In what manner?
How often?
***********************
Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn't swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn't swim.
Although he isn't interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn't interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
You must practice if you want to write well.
****************************************************
PART I: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she visited many friends.
She visited many friends when she was in Miami.
When she was in Miami: is an adverb clause.
She visited many friends: Independent clause.
An adverb clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause, a
comma is used to separate the clauses.
When the adverb clause follows, usually no comma is used.
Examples:
Because she wanted to visit her friends, she went to Miami.
She went to Miami because she wanted to visit her friends.
Like when, because introduces an adverb clause.
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are
called subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time (that), whenever, since,
until, as soon as, once, as so long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as, inasmuch as,
so (that), in order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that),
Provided (that), in case (that), in the event (that).
2.Time relationships with adverb clauses.
Examples:
After she (had) came, she turned on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned on the radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense while the
independent clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As, while = during this time.
By the time he came, she had already listened the news.
By the time he comes, she will listen the news.
By the time = one event is completed before another event.
She listens to the radio whenever he comes.
Whenever = every time when
She stayed at home until he came.
Until = till = to that time and then no longer.
She hasn listened to the radio since he came.
Since = from that time to the present.
As soon as he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
Once he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
As soon as = once = when one event happens, another
Event happens soon afterwards.
He won come as long as she smokes.
He will never come so long as she doesn call him.
As long as = so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end.
3.Cause and effect relationships with adverb clauses.
Because:
Examples:
Because he wanted to visit his friends, he went to Miami.
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
Since:
Examples:
Since she never heard about cloning, she decided to not speak about it.
Since = because
Now that:
Now that he has a lot of money, he can afford a new computer.
Now that = because now. It is used for present and future situations.
As:
As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
As = because
As/so long as:
As long as he works for this company, he can learn anything.
As/so long as = because
Inasmuch as (very formal):
Inasmuch as anybody is responsible, the situation becomes worse and worse.
Inasmuch as = because
Part II: Other Ways of Showing Cause and Effect Relationships:
1. Such ?that and so ?that:
Such ?that encloses a modified noun:
Such + adjective +noun + that
So ?that encloses an adjective or adverb:
So + adjective + that
So + adverb + that
Examples:
Because the exam was easy, they could pass it. (1)
It was such easy exam that they could pass it. (2)
The exam was so easy that they could pass it. (3)
(1), (2) and (3) have the same meaning.
So ?that is used with many, few, much and little.
Examples:
They worked so hard that they passed the exam.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
He had so much time that he went to hike.
They have so little work to do that they share it.
He has so few books that he wants to buy some.
Sometimes in speaking, that is omitted.
The exam was so easy that I could pass it.
I had so much time that I went to hike.
2.Using n order to?
In order to = to. It is used to express purpose.
It answers the question hy?
Examples:
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
He went to Miami (in order) to visit his friends.
Don use for with a verb to express purpose. Sometimes
we use for to express purpose but with a noun.
He went to Miami for business.
3. Using: So hat:
So that = in order to
So that = in order that.
So that + can:
So that is often used rather in order to when the idea of ability
is being expressed.
Examples:
He is going to make a registration in order to be able to take courses.
He is going to make a registration so (that) he can take courses.
So that + could:
Could is used after so that in past sentences.
Examples:
He repaired his car in order to enable his friend to use it.
He repaired his car so (that) his friend could use it.
May and might may also be used after that, but are not as
common as can and could.
So that + will:
The use of will after so that gives the idea that someone does
something in order to make sure that something else is
the result.
Examples:
She fill her car up in order to make sure that she will not run
out of gaz during her trip across The Nevada desert.
She fills her car up so (that) she will not run out of gaz
during her trip across The Nevada desert.
So that would:
Would is used in past tense.
Examples:
Last week, he early left his car in the garage in order to make sure
that it would be ready by eleven.
Last week, he left leaves his car in the garage so (that) it would
be ready by eleven.
4.Using: ecause of?and ue to?
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Due to her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because is an adverb. It introduces an adverb clause. It is followed by
a subject and verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions. They are followed by a
noun object.
Sometimes, usually, in more formal writing, due to is followed by a
noun clause introduced by the fact that.
Due to the fact that she was sick, she didn come to attend
the speech.
5. Using herefore?
Examples:
He passed his exams because he worked very hard.
Therefore is called a transition (or conjunctive adverb)
He worked very hard. Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He passed his exams, therefore.
A semicolon may be used instead a period:
He worked very hard; therefore, he passed his exams.
Consequently is also a transition and has the same meaning
as therefore:
He worked very hard. Consequently, he passed his exams.
A transition is used with the second sentence of a pair. It
shows the relationship of the second idea to the first idea.
A transition is movable within the second sentence.
6. Punctuations:
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because she was sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition:
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because of her sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject and verb.
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase
precedes the subject and verb of the independent clause.
Conjunction:
She was sick, so she didn come to attend the speech.
A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.
Transition:
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams, therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the
two dependent clauses. A comma may not be used to separate the clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.
PART III: Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
1.Changing time clauses to modifying phrases:
Some adverb clauses may be changed to modifying phrases. The way is
the same as changing adjective clauses:
Omit the subject and the be form of the verb of the
dependant clause:
Adverb clause:
While she was going home, she runs into a friend.
Modifying phrase:
While going home, she runs into a friend.
If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing:
Adverb clause: Before he came, he called us.
Modifying phrase: Before coming, he called us.
While he was reading a book, she knocks at the door.
This adverb clause cannot be changed to a modifying clause
because the two clauses have different subjects.
While Frank was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, Frank felt very upset.
When Safia was arrived at home, she began to call on her daughter.
When arrived at home, Safia began to call on her daughter.
When the adverb clause is changed to a modifying phrase, the noun in
the adverb clause becomes the subject of the independent clause.
2. Expressing the idea of uring the same time?in modifying phrases:
Examples:
While he was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, he felt very upset.
Reading, he felt very upset.
Going home, she saw an ancient car on the sidewalk.
Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing phrase at the beginning of the
sentence gives the same meaning (= during the same time)
3. Expressing cause and effect relationships in modifying phrases:
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is omitted, but
the resulting phrase expresses a cause and effect relationship.
Because he worked, he didn come to attend the speech.
Working, he didn come to attend the speech.
Often an -ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the
meaning of ecause?
Because she has moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of because, but
also of before.
Because he was unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Being unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
The form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. The
use of being makes the cause and effect relationship clear.
（一） 在句子裡，相當副詞作用的子句，稱為「副詞子句」。
英文的思考習慣，是把所有表示原因、方法、手段、假設、目的、讓步，
以副詞來表示，通常不放在主要子句中，而習慣上放在句子的前面或最後
（二） 引導「副詞子句」的連接詞有：wh~, how, whenever, while, as, since, till, until, after, as long as, as often as, as soon as, the moment that, no sooner …..than, by the time, any time, wherever, if, unless, in case, provided that, suppose that, on condition that, so that, once, because, now that, so that, though, although, even if, even though, whether等。
（三） 依其表達功能，有下例九種：
(1) 時間：i) when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since
ii) as long as, as soon as, by the time, every time, the first time
iii) the moment, the instant, the minute, hardly ( scarcely)—when ( before), no sooner --- than
iiii) now ( that) , once, whenever, immediately, directly
I was working when you telephoned.
Since 1973 , the price has risen very little.
I have been wearing glassed , since I was nine.
Mary saw Bill when he passed by the window.
John was not shocked until he saw the sick child.
No sooner had he graduated from the colleague than he found a job in an export company.
Hardly had he completed his work when he went home.
(2) 地方：where, wherever, whence, whither
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Mary followed Tom wherever he went.
Helen was told to stay where she was.
Don't ask me whence I came.﹝不要問我從哪裡來。﹞
A rudder guides the ship whither it wills.
﹝指導員引導船往它要到的地方去。﹞
(3) 狀態： (Adverb Clause of Manner)
i) as, as if, as though
ii) so that, such that, in such a way… that,
iii) in that
Do as I have told you.
David did his work as he was told.
Paul ran as if a mad dog was chasing him.
In some cities of the United States, schools are such
dangerous places that students carry knives and guns
to class.
In some cities of the United States, schools are so
dangerous that students carry knives and guns
to class.
(4) 原因或理由： i) because, since, as, for
ii)seeing that, being that, now that
iii) in that
As it was very cold, I did not go out.
Kevin failed in the examination because he was too lazy.
Since Samuel was still a boy, he was not admitted.
John is absent today because he is sick.
= John is absent today in that he is sick.
※ 依表示理由或原因的強度比較：because → since → as → for
(5) 目的： i) so… that, so that, lest, in order that
ii)lest.. should, in case, .. should, for fear that
He works hard so that he may succeed.
We eat so that we may live.
Don’t go near the pier lest you should fall into the water.
Hide it lest he see [【英】should see] it.
(6) 讓步： i) though, although, even if, even though
ii) whether … or not,
iii) no matter how (who, what , whether)
iiii) whatever, however, whoever, whichever, whenever, wherever
Though he is poor, he is honest.
Though Jimmy is young, he is an able executive.
No matter what you say, I will sue him for damages.
(7) 比較：i) as.. as, not so.. as
ii) more ( less )… than
iii) the more ( or .. er), the more ( or..er)
He is as tall as I am.
James works harder than George does.
The more money he has, the more he wants.
(8) 條件： i) if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition that
ii) Supposing ( granting, assuming) that, provided ( granted) that
If you don’t work hard, you will fail.
I shall come if Linda also comes.
The match will be played tomorrow if it stops raining now.
(9) 結果：so--- that, such—that, so that, so
He worked so hard that he succeeded.
He ran so quickly that Alice could not catch up.
Rose sang with such a beautiful voice that the audience was completely absorbed in the music.
(10) 限制: Adverb Clause of Restriction
i) as far as, so far as
ii) in that
I'll help you as far as I can. 我將盡我所能幫助你。
So far as ability is concerned, he is inferior to his brother.
就能力而言, 他劣於它的兄弟.
Latin differs from other languages in that it is not spoken.
拉丁語異於其他語言 沒有被談及
The commutation of a criminal’s sentence differs from a pardon in that it reduces the terms of punishment rather than excuses the criminal completely.
[ ] 減刑 sentence 宣判;課刑 pardon 特赦
criminal adj.犯罪的 n. 罪犯[C]
副詞子句與逗點的關係
1) 副詞子句在前面時, 子句後面有逗點
Even when binoculars are used to observe Saturn, the planet’s moons are invisible.
[ ] 雙筒望遠鏡 moon (行星的)衛星
2) 副詞子句在主詞與動詞之中, 是 插入法時, 前後各有一個逗點
The gorilla, while not as curious as the chimpanzee, shows more
Persistence and memory retention in solving a problem.
1. Chimpanzee 非洲黑猩猩 [ ] , gorilla 大猩猩
2. [ ]堅持;固執 3. [ ]保留;保持, 記憶力
3) 副詞子句在後時, 有時有逗點, 有時沒有
Bronze does not bend with use or grow brittle quickly, as copper does.
[ ]青銅[U] copper 銅[U] [ ]易碎的;易損壞的
The wallflower is so called because its weak stems often grow on walls and along stony cliffs for support.
4) so that, such that , as…. As, more (…er ) …. than,
in order that , in that 都在中間, 與主句之間無逗點
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Rubber can be made so elastic that it will stretch more than nine times its normal length.
[ ] 有彈性的
副詞子句的省略 Elliptical Adverb Clause [ l]
大部分的副詞子句不能省略, 只有 表比較的副詞子句 及其他副詞子句可以省略.
A) 表比較的副詞子句
A-1 less , more + ( adj, adv or participial) ….+ than
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
Donna was elected to be the board when he was 24 years old.
= Donna was elected to be the board when 24 years old.
A-2 as + ( adj, adv or participial) + as
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
We can provide you with as many reference books as needed.
= We can provide you with as many reference books as they are needed.
A-3 The more ( less ) + 主詞 或 The adj ( adv) + er, BE 動詞可省略
The higher the animal in the evolutionary chain, the more it can learn and the less it depends on instinct.
= The higher the animal is evolutionary chain, the…
B ) 其他副詞子句的省略, 省去的一定是 Be 動詞, 而省去的主詞必等於
主句的主詞
While traveling in arctic regions, the Aleut construct igloos as temporary winter shelters. = While they are traveling in arctic regions, ….
Football and baseball as played in the United States today are basically modifications of games that originated in England.
= Football and baseball as they are played in ….
EXERCISE:
.1. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe. (A) before ( B) since
2. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats. (A) Before (B) Since
3 You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad. ( A) since ( B) so that
4 更 正以下的 Incomplete sentence
Although Nina wrote stories and poems as a child since her first real successes did not come until she was twenty-three.
提示: Although + S + V = adverb clause
Since + S + V = adverb clause, 改為 main clause
Until + S + V = adverb clause
********************
Complete each adverb clause below with the correct word(s):
1. __________________ he always did well on his English tests, his parents were not surprised that he got an A.
When
Since
2. You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad.
since
so that
3. __________________ he thinks he's smart, he isn't.
Although
After
4. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe.
before
since
5. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats.
Before
Since
6. ________________ I came to this country, I didn't speak a word of English!
Before
Since
7. I'll let you know ________________ I come back.
because
after
8. He doesn't understand ________________ he doesn't speak French very well.
so that
because
9. He spoke slowly ________________ she would understand.
because
so that
10. ________________ you stop crying, I'll buy you an ice cream.
If
Since
答案: 1. since 2 so that 3 although 4 before 5 since
6 before 7 after 8 because 9 so that 10 if
*********************************
Recognize an adverb clause when you see one.
An adverb clause will meet three requirements.
First, it will contain a subject and verb.
You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?
Read these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.
******************************
Dependent clauses can function as adverbs. In this case, they are called adverb clauses. (Bet I didn't surprise you with that one.) An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb. As with regular old garden-variety adverbs, an adverb clause answers these questions:
Where?
Why?
When?
To what extent?
Under what condition?
In what manner?
How often?
***********************
Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn't swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn't swim.
Although he isn't interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn't interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
You must practice if you want to write well.
****************************************************
PART I: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she visited many friends.
She visited many friends when she was in Miami.
When she was in Miami: is an adverb clause.
She visited many friends: Independent clause.
An adverb clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause, a
comma is used to separate the clauses.
When the adverb clause follows, usually no comma is used.
Examples:
Because she wanted to visit her friends, she went to Miami.
She went to Miami because she wanted to visit her friends.
Like when, because introduces an adverb clause.
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are
called subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time (that), whenever, since,
until, as soon as, once, as so long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as, inasmuch as,
so (that), in order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that),
Provided (that), in case (that), in the event (that).
2.Time relationships with adverb clauses.
Examples:
After she (had) came, she turned on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned on the radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense while the
independent clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As, while = during this time.
By the time he came, she had already listened the news.
By the time he comes, she will listen the news.
By the time = one event is completed before another event.
She listens to the radio whenever he comes.
Whenever = every time when
She stayed at home until he came.
Until = till = to that time and then no longer.
She hasn listened to the radio since he came.
Since = from that time to the present.
As soon as he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
Once he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
As soon as = once = when one event happens, another
Event happens soon afterwards.
He won come as long as she smokes.
He will never come so long as she doesn call him.
As long as = so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end.
3.Cause and effect relationships with adverb clauses.
Because:
Examples:
Because he wanted to visit his friends, he went to Miami.
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
Since:
Examples:
Since she never heard about cloning, she decided to not speak about it.
Since = because
Now that:
Now that he has a lot of money, he can afford a new computer.
Now that = because now. It is used for present and future situations.
As:
As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
As = because
As/so long as:
As long as he works for this company, he can learn anything.
As/so long as = because
Inasmuch as (very formal):
Inasmuch as anybody is responsible, the situation becomes worse and worse.
Inasmuch as = because
Part II: Other Ways of Showing Cause and Effect Relationships:
1. Such ?that and so ?that:
Such ?that encloses a modified noun:
Such + adjective +noun + that
So ?that encloses an adjective or adverb:
So + adjective + that
So + adverb + that
Examples:
Because the exam was easy, they could pass it. (1)
It was such easy exam that they could pass it. (2)
The exam was so easy that they could pass it. (3)
(1), (2) and (3) have the same meaning.
So ?that is used with many, few, much and little.
Examples:
They worked so hard that they passed the exam.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
He had so much time that he went to hike.
They have so little work to do that they share it.
He has so few books that he wants to buy some.
Sometimes in speaking, that is omitted.
The exam was so easy that I could pass it.
I had so much time that I went to hike.
2.Using n order to?
In order to = to. It is used to express purpose.
It answers the question hy?
Examples:
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
He went to Miami (in order) to visit his friends.
Don use for with a verb to express purpose. Sometimes
we use for to express purpose but with a noun.
He went to Miami for business.
3. Using: So hat:
So that = in order to
So that = in order that.
So that + can:
So that is often used rather in order to when the idea of ability
is being expressed.
Examples:
He is going to make a registration in order to be able to take courses.
He is going to make a registration so (that) he can take courses.
So that + could:
Could is used after so that in past sentences.
Examples:
He repaired his car in order to enable his friend to use it.
He repaired his car so (that) his friend could use it.
May and might may also be used after that, but are not as
common as can and could.
So that + will:
The use of will after so that gives the idea that someone does
something in order to make sure that something else is
the result.
Examples:
She fill her car up in order to make sure that she will not run
out of gaz during her trip across The Nevada desert.
She fills her car up so (that) she will not run out of gaz
during her trip across The Nevada desert.
So that would:
Would is used in past tense.
Examples:
Last week, he early left his car in the garage in order to make sure
that it would be ready by eleven.
Last week, he left leaves his car in the garage so (that) it would
be ready by eleven.
4.Using: ecause of?and ue to?
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Due to her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because is an adverb. It introduces an adverb clause. It is followed by
a subject and verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions. They are followed by a
noun object.
Sometimes, usually, in more formal writing, due to is followed by a
noun clause introduced by the fact that.
Due to the fact that she was sick, she didn come to attend
the speech.
5. Using herefore?
Examples:
He passed his exams because he worked very hard.
Therefore is called a transition (or conjunctive adverb)
He worked very hard. Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He passed his exams, therefore.
A semicolon may be used instead a period:
He worked very hard; therefore, he passed his exams.
Consequently is also a transition and has the same meaning
as therefore:
He worked very hard. Consequently, he passed his exams.
A transition is used with the second sentence of a pair. It
shows the relationship of the second idea to the first idea.
A transition is movable within the second sentence.
6. Punctuations:
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because she was sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition:
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because of her sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject and verb.
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase
precedes the subject and verb of the independent clause.
Conjunction:
She was sick, so she didn come to attend the speech.
A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.
Transition:
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams, therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the
two dependent clauses. A comma may not be used to separate the clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.
PART III: Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
1.Changing time clauses to modifying phrases:
Some adverb clauses may be changed to modifying phrases. The way is
the same as changing adjective clauses:
Omit the subject and the be form of the verb of the
dependant clause:
Adverb clause:
While she was going home, she runs into a friend.
Modifying phrase:
While going home, she runs into a friend.
If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing:
Adverb clause: Before he came, he called us.
Modifying phrase: Before coming, he called us.
While he was reading a book, she knocks at the door.
This adverb clause cannot be changed to a modifying clause
because the two clauses have different subjects.
While Frank was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, Frank felt very upset.
When Safia was arrived at home, she began to call on her daughter.
When arrived at home, Safia began to call on her daughter.
When the adverb clause is changed to a modifying phrase, the noun in
the adverb clause becomes the subject of the independent clause.
2. Expressing the idea of uring the same time?in modifying phrases:
Examples:
While he was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, he felt very upset.
Reading, he felt very upset.
Going home, she saw an ancient car on the sidewalk.
Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing phrase at the beginning of the
sentence gives the same meaning (= during the same time)
3. Expressing cause and effect relationships in modifying phrases:
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is omitted, but
the resulting phrase expresses a cause and effect relationship.
Because he worked, he didn come to attend the speech.
Working, he didn come to attend the speech.
Often an -ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the
meaning of ecause?
Because she has moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of because, but
also of before.
Because he was unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Being unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
The form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. The
use of being makes the cause and effect relationship clear.
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