倒 裝 句
索引 : ( 複合句 : 複雜句 : 動詞在句首的倒裝 ) ( 受詞置於句首 : 補語在句首 : 分詞 : 直接敘述法 )
倒裝就是把動詞置於主詞的前面，英文句子的倒裝是常有的現象。廣義而言，倒裝句包括
(1) 疑問句，(2)祈願句， (3) 為強調， 訊息焦點，引起注意，或為使句子的 意義清晰等等理由，
而形成的倒裝句。 疑問句和祈願句前面已談過在此不再多述。本文重點放在第 (3)項。大部分句子的
倒裝要領和 yes - no 疑問句的形成方法一樣，只差句尾沒有問號。也就是 (1)有 be動詞 時，則將 be 動詞
移至主詞之前。(2) 有助動詞時則將其置於主詞之前，無助動詞時則加 do, does,或 did。閱讀時，如看到
倒裝句不能立刻瞭解其意，就將其還原為五基本句型之一的原型，就比較容易解決。
I. 副詞置句首的倒裝句
(1) 強調否定的副詞放在句首 ：下列是一些此類的否定詞 ,通常用在正式的文體。 few, little, hardly,
scarcely, seldom, never, none, nobody, nothing, nowhere, no sooner, not until, not at all, not for a moment,
in no way, on no account, by no means, under no circumstances (決不) ( ..... no ..... 的片語)
It is seldom wise to neglect one's own health. → Seldom is it wise to neglect one's own health.
I shall never forget your kindness to me. → Never shall I forget your kindness to me.
I did not find I had left my key in the office until I got home.
→ Not until I got home did I find I had left my key in the office.
There has never been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
→ Never has there been a time when the need of honesty was so emphasized as today.
The teacher had no sooner entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
→ No sooner had the teacher entered the classroom than the students all calmed down.
The teacher had hardly / scarcely entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
→ Hardly / Scarcely had the teacher entered the classroom when / before the students all calmed down.
Nowhere could the boy find his lost dog.
Little did he dream that he should won the first prize.
Not only did it thunder but it also poured last night.
By no means is your performance in study satisfactory. ( Your performance in study is by no means satisfactory.)
On no account are you to go playing without finishing your homework first.
(2) Only + adverb (phrase or clause) : 常見於正式的体裁中。
Only in the night is an owl active in chasing the game. (獵物)
Only in this way can you solve the problem you have met now.
Only when one loses one's health, does one realize its importance.
Only in the exhibition in Tainan county have we seen such a splendid orchid .
(3) 地方 / 方位 副詞，和感嘆句的倒裝 : 地方 / 方位副詞置句首而後面的是不及物動詞 時常用倒裝，
不用 do 或 did 於主詞之前， 常出現於文學和描述文章。
Under a tree were sitting three old farmers of the village.
Beside the desk / Behind the counter stood a tall man with silver hair.
From Taiwan come a lot of the most beautiful orchids.
From within the house floated the tender melody of music.
Off went Steve! Off he went ! Back came the girls! Back they came!
Down fell the big tall tree! Away flew the birds! Away they flew!
Here comes the bus! (= Here it comes!) Here you are. (主詞是名詞要倒裝，代名詞則不倒裝)
Here is the pen that you are looking for.
※ 在 Practical English Usage by Michael Swan 一書中對感嘆句有如下的敘述。
(a) 否定疑問句的形式可當感嘆句用，但其意是肯定。
Hasn't she grown! (= She has grown a lot!) Wasn't it a great match! (真是一場好比賽)
Isn't it cold! (好冷)
(b) 非否定疑問句的形式也可當感嘆句用，常見於美式英語。
Am I hungry! ( 我好餓阿) Am I fed up! (我真煩死了) Did he look annoyed! (他看起來好煩的樣子)
(c) 在舊式文學中，how 和 what 後面的感嘆句偶而也用感嘆句。
How beautiful are the flowers! What a peaceful place is Mount Ali!
※ 地方副詞在句首而句子的動詞是及物動詞時，則不必倒裝。但被動語態時仍必倒裝。
In his hand he / the boy held a bottle of water.
Behind him he felt the gunfire becoming fiercer and fiercer.
From the top of the hill we had a full view of the beautiful village.
Into one of the poor families was born a boy who was named Parker.
On the white wall was printed a red shape of a hand.
※大學文法與修辭 ，計湘全著 在 p. 292 對 here 和 there 用法說明與一般的說法寬鬆可供參考。
以 here 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則要倒裝。主詞是代名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " Here he comes." 或 "Here comes he." 都對。
以 there 為句首而主詞是名詞時，則倒裝與不倒裝皆可。
因此 " There stood Steve." 或 " There Steve stood." 都對。
(4) 表次數的副詞 : 這種副詞只為強調，不倒裝也可以。
Twice within the 20th century were there world wars which killed tens of millions of people.
Often have we heard that more and more people lost their jobs.
Many a time did the kind old woman give food to the beggars. ( 回 頁 首 )
(5) 放在句首的副詞修飾全句的，不能倒裝。
On Sundays we are allowed to go shopping. Apparently the boy did not do his homework.
At twelve all the workers stop working and have their lunch.
Luckily the poor worker won a big prize in the lottery.
II. 複合句 : (1) 肯定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 , too. → 肯定句 + and + so + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
(2) 否定句 + and + 主詞 + 助動詞 + not, either. → 否定句 + and + nor / neither + 助動詞 + 主詞 .
兩否定句的主詞同屬一個人，則只能用 nor ，不能用 neither。主詞不同人，則 nor, neither 都可用。
He works hard and you do, too. → He works hard and so do you.
Edward doesn't drink, nor does he smoke. Mia cannot swim, nor can she play baseball.
I am not good at chess, nor do I wish to be.
He didn't work hard, and you didn't either. → He didn't work hard, and nor / neither did you.
You cannot fix the computer, nor / neither can my brother.
A: I like chocolate very much. B: So do I. ( 非複合句 )
III. 複雜句 ：
(1) 讓步子句 : Although / Though + S + V + n / adj. / adv., .... → N / Adj. / Adv. + as / though + S + V, ....
Although she is a girl, she is very brave. → Girl as she is, she is very brave. ( girl 不加冠詞)
Though he is poor, he still helps those who need help.→ Poor as he is , he still helps those who need help.
Although he worked hard, he couldn't support his family. → Hard as he worked, he couldn't support ....
Tired though we were, we kept climbing up to the top of the mountain. (不可用 although)
Dangerous though it was, he was confident that they would win.
(2) 假設語氣的倒裝 ：在文學体中常用。
If I were a billionaire, I could buy a big house.→ Were I a billionaire, I could buy a big house.
If I should miss the bus, I would go by taxi. → Should I miss the bus, I would go by taxi.
If I had studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
→ Had I studied harder last year, I might enter Taiwan University this year.
(3) 比較 和 名詞子句 有需要可倒裝 , as 在文學體中有時也用倒裝。
The parents know their children better than do the others.
Mr. Wang is a Buddhist, as are most of his friends.
The child watches TV every day as do most of his classmates.
Tell me who is that guy who is playing tennis there.
Do you know who is the boy running along the sidewalk?
Children in Taiwan learn much the same things as do those of the same age in Japan.
IV. 動詞在句首的倒裝 :
Try as he would, he could not finish the work in time. ← Though he would try, he could not ....
Come what may, I have made up my mind not to give up. ← Whatever may come, I have made up ....
Come what will, they will never yield. ← Whatever will come, they will never yield.
Report what you may, be faithful to the truth. ← Whatever you may report, be faithful to the truth.
Be he rich or poor, he shall be treated equally. ← Whether he is rich or poor, he shall be treated equally.
V. 受詞置於句首如果是否定的，則要倒裝，否則不用倒裝。如 I.(1) 所列的 none, nobody, nothing。
No advice did my teacher give me. (= My teacher gave me no advice.)
Nothing could we do in such a devastating forest fire. Nobody did I tell the secret.
Not a word did they say. ( They did not say a word.)
cf. Hardly a word is spoken. Hardly anybody was able to do it. 在此 hardly 是修飾 a word, anybody,
正如 No word was spoken. Nobody was able to do it . 一樣。
Democracy and freedom we believe in. Anne only he could love.= He could love Anne only.
The speech he gave yesterday, I think of as nonsense. Whether he will come or not, no one knows.
The history one can know, but the future no one can tell.
We eat what we can, and what we can't , we can.
(= We eat what can eat, and we can (裝罐)what we can't eat.)
VI. 補語在句首的倒裝 :
Happy is the country that has no history. (諺) Happy are the pure in heart, they will see God. (the Bible)
Hard is the way that leads to mastering any language, especially English.
A brave man is Steve who fought against the robber and caught him.
So shocked was the girl that she couldn't utter a word.
Interesting and instructive is the story book that you bought me last week.
VII. 分詞 ( participle ) :
Lying on the bench was a beautiful cat. Getting out of the car was her aunt.
Walking with the boy in the park was his uncle Mr. Wang.
Related to the increasing population are the problems of housing and food supply. ( 回 頁 首 )
Included in this plan will be a center for poor children.
VIII.直接敘述法 / 引句 (direct narration) : 直接引句後面，動詞 (reporting verbs) 如 say, ask, reply, answer,
deny, explain, remind, think, warn, etc. 在書寫文裡常用倒裝，不用 do 或 did。直接引句原是
上述動詞的受詞 ， 在此將其移到句首而產生倒裝 ，不倒裝也可以。
"We had a good time last week." said John. " I shall be 18 tomorrow." whispered Bill.
"Who's Mr. Wang?" shouted the man at the door. "What's going on there?" asked Henry.
句子結合的技巧
句子結合的必要性
句子必須結合才能避免單調、味如嚼蠟，因為如果所有句子都很簡短且長度相等，它們必然會產生單調且暮氣沈沈。)寫作者必須使用不同的基本句子結構並變換句子的長度，才能使文章生動活潑、躍然紙上，讓讀者對文章愛不釋手、秉燭夜讀，天天夜未眠。這一頁我們將探討一般寫作者用來結合句子的一些技巧。
首先，我們來介紹英文的基本句子結構。視它們所含的子句數目和類型而定，我們可以將句子分成四大類：
單句 (simple) -- 一個獨立子句： We drove from Taipei to Kaohsiung in six hours.
合句 (compound) -- 一個以上的獨立子句：We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
複句 (complex) -- 一個獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
複合句 (compound-complex) -- 一個以上的獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised.
句子的結合
如上述，合句是由兩個或多個的獨立子句所構成。換言之，句子中至少有兩個獨立子句，而每個子句都可單獨存在。合句的子句可以一個分號 (相當少見) 來分開，或用對等連接詞 (連接詞的前面通常加一個逗點) 來連接。最常用的兩個對等連接詞是 and 和 but (其他對等連接詞為 or, for, yet 和 so)。這是最簡單的句子結合技巧：
Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science.
Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a curious man by nature.
注意：and 只不過是將一個子句與另一個子句連接在一起；而 but 也具有這種連接功能，但它亦使子句之間建立了某種關係。and 只是表示某件事在另一件事之後發生，而它們之間的邏輯關係不一定顯而易見或很重要。 but 這個字 (及其他對等連接詞) 使兩個子句之間具有略高一些的邏輯關係。
按這裡一下來溫習在以對等連接詞連接兩個獨立子句時逗點的使用規則。
句子元素的結合
在一個句子中，我們也可以結合不同的元素：主詞、動詞、受詞或整個述語、修飾語等等。注意：當句子的兩個元素以對等連接詞連接時 (與合句的兩個獨立子句的連接不同)，這個連接詞通常具有平衡的作用，所以無需逗點。主詞：當兩個或多個主詞係平行對稱時，它們通常可結合成複合主詞：
Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced Congress to raise money for the expedition.
受詞：當主詞平行地作用於兩個或多個受詞時，這些受詞可以結合起來：
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border.
He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States.
注意：這些受詞在結構和詞類上必須平行對稱，否則不能結合。按這裡一下來溫習平行的原則。
動詞與動狀詞：當主詞同時做兩件事時，這些動詞和動狀詞有時可以結合：
He studied the biological and natural sciences.
He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
注意：在連接上述元素時，"and learned" 的前面沒有逗點。
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.
He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with mathematical precision.
(或) In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
注意：在第二部分的結合例句中，我們不必重複不定詞的 "to" 來維持平行對稱，因為 "chart" 和 "analyze" 已經構成兩個動詞的對稱，若加 "to"，則變成重複的元素，可以省略，其結果還是一樣的。
修飾語：在適當的情況中，介系詞片語等修飾語也可結合起來：
Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
They also used recruits from various military outposts.
Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various military outposts.
注意：我們不必重複介系詞 "from"，道理與上述相同。
將一個子句附屬於另一子句
使兩個子句「對等」的動作只是將兩個子句連接起來而已；而將一個子句「附屬」於另一子句則會使兩個子句之間建立一種較複雜的關係，來表現其中一個子句在某方面仰賴另一子句的存在：一種時間前後的關係、一種因果關係、一種條件關係等等。
William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure.
Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.
They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
當我們使用子句的「主從關係」來連接子句時，標點符號的使用規則非常重要。在此，我們使用逗點來分開引導及插入語句。
使用同位格來結合句子
同位格可能是結合句子最有效的工具。同位格或同位格片語是句子中先前出現的人事物的另一名稱。你可以將同位格視為省略掉關係代名詞和連綴動詞的修飾子句。同位格通常是 (但並非都是) 插入語句，它的前後都要加逗點來與句子的其他部分分開。
Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
注意：在上面第二個句子中，Sacagawea 的名字是插入語句 (在結構上，句子已指出她是一名十五歲的印地安孕婦)，因此需要一對逗點來分開；然而，Charbonneau 的名字對句子的意思至關重要 (否則誰知道我們在談論哪位皮草商人呢?)，所以不是用一對逗點來分開。
使用分詞片語來結合句子
寫作者可以將某個句子改為修飾用的片語來將之整合到一個較大的句子結構中。
Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner.
This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part of Lewis's fellow explorers.
Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.
在上句中，分詞片語修飾句子的主詞 Lewis。這類片語通常用一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
使用獨立片語來結合句子
最優美 -- 也是最容易被誤解 -- 的結合句子的方法可能是獨立片語。這種片語通常出現在句子的開頭，包含一個名詞 (片語的主詞)，其後往往跟隨一個分詞；片語中可能還有其他修飾語。然而，獨立片語中沒有真正的動詞，且都是被當作插入語句，即引導用的修飾語；它被一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
獨立片語可能被誤為分詞片語，而這兩種片語之間的差異在結構上雖不是很顯著，但卻很重要。分詞片語不含 獨立片語的主詞與分詞的關係。分詞片語修飾它後面的獨立子句的主詞，而獨立片語則是修飾其後的整個子句。例如，在下面第一個結合後的句子中，獨立片語修飾主詞 Lewis，但它也修飾動詞，告訴我們他「在何種條件下」或「以何種方式」或「如何」使世界對他感到失望。因此，獨立片語係修飾後續的整個子句，所以不應跟不連結分詞混淆；不連結分詞必定是修飾緊跟其後的主詞。
Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.
Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
Lewis's long journey was finally completed.
His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
句子必須結合才能避免單調、味如嚼蠟，因為如果所有句子都很簡短且長度相等，它們必然會產生單調且暮氣沈沈。)寫作者必須使用不同的基本句子結構並變換句子的長度，才能使文章生動活潑、躍然紙上，讓讀者對文章愛不釋手、秉燭夜讀，天天夜未眠。這一頁我們將探討一般寫作者用來結合句子的一些技巧。
首先，我們來介紹英文的基本句子結構。視它們所含的子句數目和類型而定，我們可以將句子分成四大類：
單句 (simple) -- 一個獨立子句： We drove from Taipei to Kaohsiung in six hours.
合句 (compound) -- 一個以上的獨立子句：We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
複句 (complex) -- 一個獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
複合句 (compound-complex) -- 一個以上的獨立子句及至少一個從屬子句：After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised.
句子的結合
如上述，合句是由兩個或多個的獨立子句所構成。換言之，句子中至少有兩個獨立子句，而每個子句都可單獨存在。合句的子句可以一個分號 (相當少見) 來分開，或用對等連接詞 (連接詞的前面通常加一個逗點) 來連接。最常用的兩個對等連接詞是 and 和 but (其他對等連接詞為 or, for, yet 和 so)。這是最簡單的句子結合技巧：
Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science.
Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a curious man by nature.
注意：and 只不過是將一個子句與另一個子句連接在一起；而 but 也具有這種連接功能，但它亦使子句之間建立了某種關係。and 只是表示某件事在另一件事之後發生，而它們之間的邏輯關係不一定顯而易見或很重要。 but 這個字 (及其他對等連接詞) 使兩個子句之間具有略高一些的邏輯關係。
按這裡一下來溫習在以對等連接詞連接兩個獨立子句時逗點的使用規則。
句子元素的結合
在一個句子中，我們也可以結合不同的元素：主詞、動詞、受詞或整個述語、修飾語等等。注意：當句子的兩個元素以對等連接詞連接時 (與合句的兩個獨立子句的連接不同)，這個連接詞通常具有平衡的作用，所以無需逗點。主詞：當兩個或多個主詞係平行對稱時，它們通常可結合成複合主詞：
Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced Congress to raise money for the expedition.
受詞：當主詞平行地作用於兩個或多個受詞時，這些受詞可以結合起來：
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border.
He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States.
注意：這些受詞在結構和詞類上必須平行對稱，否則不能結合。按這裡一下來溫習平行的原則。
動詞與動狀詞：當主詞同時做兩件事時，這些動詞和動狀詞有時可以結合：
He studied the biological and natural sciences.
He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
注意：在連接上述元素時，"and learned" 的前面沒有逗點。
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.
He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with mathematical precision.
(或) In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
注意：在第二部分的結合例句中，我們不必重複不定詞的 "to" 來維持平行對稱，因為 "chart" 和 "analyze" 已經構成兩個動詞的對稱，若加 "to"，則變成重複的元素，可以省略，其結果還是一樣的。
修飾語：在適當的情況中，介系詞片語等修飾語也可結合起來：
Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
They also used recruits from various military outposts.
Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various military outposts.
注意：我們不必重複介系詞 "from"，道理與上述相同。
將一個子句附屬於另一子句
使兩個子句「對等」的動作只是將兩個子句連接起來而已；而將一個子句「附屬」於另一子句則會使兩個子句之間建立一種較複雜的關係，來表現其中一個子句在某方面仰賴另一子句的存在：一種時間前後的關係、一種因果關係、一種條件關係等等。
William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure.
Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.
The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.
They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
當我們使用子句的「主從關係」來連接子句時，標點符號的使用規則非常重要。在此，我們使用逗點來分開引導及插入語句。
使用同位格來結合句子
同位格可能是結合句子最有效的工具。同位格或同位格片語是句子中先前出現的人事物的另一名稱。你可以將同位格視為省略掉關係代名詞和連綴動詞的修飾子句。同位格通常是 (但並非都是) 插入語句，它的前後都要加逗點來與句子的其他部分分開。
Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
注意：在上面第二個句子中，Sacagawea 的名字是插入語句 (在結構上，句子已指出她是一名十五歲的印地安孕婦)，因此需要一對逗點來分開；然而，Charbonneau 的名字對句子的意思至關重要 (否則誰知道我們在談論哪位皮草商人呢?)，所以不是用一對逗點來分開。
使用分詞片語來結合句子
寫作者可以將某個句子改為修飾用的片語來將之整合到一個較大的句子結構中。
Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner.
This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part of Lewis's fellow explorers.
Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.
在上句中，分詞片語修飾句子的主詞 Lewis。這類片語通常用一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
使用獨立片語來結合句子
最優美 -- 也是最容易被誤解 -- 的結合句子的方法可能是獨立片語。這種片語通常出現在句子的開頭，包含一個名詞 (片語的主詞)，其後往往跟隨一個分詞；片語中可能還有其他修飾語。然而，獨立片語中沒有真正的動詞，且都是被當作插入語句，即引導用的修飾語；它被一個逗點來與句子其他部分分開。
獨立片語可能被誤為分詞片語，而這兩種片語之間的差異在結構上雖不是很顯著，但卻很重要。分詞片語不含 獨立片語的主詞與分詞的關係。分詞片語修飾它後面的獨立子句的主詞，而獨立片語則是修飾其後的整個子句。例如，在下面第一個結合後的句子中，獨立片語修飾主詞 Lewis，但它也修飾動詞，告訴我們他「在何種條件下」或「以何種方式」或「如何」使世界對他感到失望。因此，獨立片語係修飾後續的整個子句，所以不應跟不連結分詞混淆；不連結分詞必定是修飾緊跟其後的主詞。
Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.
Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
Lewis's long journey was finally completed.
His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
進行式、狀態與動態動詞
Progressive, Stative, and Dynamic Verbs
動詞的進行式是指事情現在、過去或未來「正在」發生。若時間為過去，那麼進行式是指事件持續短暫的時間："While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my room." 過去進行式亦暗示過去的某一動作並未全部完成。 (我們可從 "I did my homework." 和 "I was doing my homework."這兩個句子的比較窺其端倪。) 這在被動進行式結構中更加顯而易見："He was being strangled in the alley." 顯示動作未完成，可能是因為動作被一位見義勇為的市民所中斷，所以他才未被勒死；而簡單過去式："He was strangled in the alley." 則顯示動作已完成。可憐的傢伙，真是不幸!
進行式只能發生在動態動詞 (dynamic verbs) -- 亦即性質可以變化的動詞 -- 身上，而狀態動詞 (stative verbs) 則是性質不能變化的動詞。例如，我們不可以說："He is being tall." 或 "He is resembling his mother." 或 "I am wanting spaghetti for dinner." 或 "It is belonging to me." (我們應該說： "He is tall."、 "He resembles his mother."、 "I want spaghetti for dinner." 及 "It belongs to me.") 若要瞭解動態與狀態動詞之間的差異，最佳的方法是畫一個表，將這些動詞列在上面並予以分類，然後用它們來寫一些句子，試著看看可否使用進行式。
A. 動態動詞
A-1 動作動詞
I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing upstairs..與簡單式的意思幾乎完全一樣：I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
Verbs:eat, help, learn,listen,look at, whisper....
A-2 過程動詞
The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.與簡單現在式的意思幾乎完全一樣：The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
verbs: change,deteriorate, mature
A-3身體感覺動詞
"I feel bad" 和 "I am feeling bad" 的意思幾乎完全一樣。
verbs: itch, ache, hurt, feel
A-4變動事件動詞:
進行式表示事件的開始，與簡單現在式的意思不同。"She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" (當她正要掉到床下時，我剛好抓住她) "She falls out of bed every night." (她每晚都掉到床下)
verbs: arrive,die, fallland,leave,lose
A-5 瞬間動詞
進行式表示時間短暫且暗示動作重複。She is hitting her brother.He is jumping around the house
Verbs: hit,jump, kick,knock, nod, tap
動詞的進行式是指事情現在、過去或未來「正在」發生。若時間為過去，那麼進行式是指事件持續短暫的時間："While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my room." 過去進行式亦暗示過去的某一動作並未全部完成。 (我們可從 "I did my homework." 和 "I was doing my homework."這兩個句子的比較窺其端倪。) 這在被動進行式結構中更加顯而易見："He was being strangled in the alley." 顯示動作未完成，可能是因為動作被一位見義勇為的市民所中斷，所以他才未被勒死；而簡單過去式："He was strangled in the alley." 則顯示動作已完成。可憐的傢伙，真是不幸!
進行式只能發生在動態動詞 (dynamic verbs) -- 亦即性質可以變化的動詞 -- 身上，而狀態動詞 (stative verbs) 則是性質不能變化的動詞。例如，我們不可以說："He is being tall." 或 "He is resembling his mother." 或 "I am wanting spaghetti for dinner." 或 "It is belonging to me." (我們應該說： "He is tall."、 "He resembles his mother."、 "I want spaghetti for dinner." 及 "It belongs to me.") 若要瞭解動態與狀態動詞之間的差異，最佳的方法是畫一個表，將這些動詞列在上面並予以分類，然後用它們來寫一些句子，試著看看可否使用進行式。
A. 動態動詞
A-1 動作動詞
I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing upstairs..與簡單式的意思幾乎完全一樣：I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
Verbs:eat, help, learn,listen,look at, whisper....
A-2 過程動詞
The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.與簡單現在式的意思幾乎完全一樣：The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
verbs: change,deteriorate, mature
A-3身體感覺動詞
"I feel bad" 和 "I am feeling bad" 的意思幾乎完全一樣。
verbs: itch, ache, hurt, feel
A-4變動事件動詞:
進行式表示事件的開始，與簡單現在式的意思不同。"She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" (當她正要掉到床下時，我剛好抓住她) "She falls out of bed every night." (她每晚都掉到床下)
verbs: arrive,die, fallland,leave,lose
A-5 瞬間動詞
進行式表示時間短暫且暗示動作重複。She is hitting her brother.He is jumping around the house
Verbs: hit,jump, kick,knock, nod, tap
B.狀態動詞
B-1靜態的感覺和認知動詞
*I detest betel nut，但不是 I am detesting betel nut.I prefer cinnamon toast，但不是 I am preferring cinnamon toast.
Verbs:guess,hate,hear,imagine,impress,intend,know,like,love,mean ,mind,perceive,please,prefer,presuppose,realize,recallr,ecognize,regard,remember
B-2 關係動詞
I am sick，但不是 I am being sick.I own ten hectares of land，但不是 I am owning ten hectares.My brother owes me ten dollars" ，但不是 My brother is owing me ten dollars.
verbs:depend on,deserve,equal,fit,have,include,involve,lack,matter,need,owe,own,
belong toc,oncern,consist of,contain,cost
* 文法專家建議，我們應以「有意志」和「無意志」性質來思考狀態與動態之間的差異。現在讓我們來看看所謂動態形容詞 (主詞補語) 和狀態形容詞 (也是主詞補語) 之間的差異： "I am silly" 或 "I am being silly" 相對於 "I am tall." 我可以作主要不要成為一個愚蠢的人，是我自己選擇了做個愚蠢的人；但我沒辦法自己選擇長得很高。因此，"tall" 具有狀態 (或靜態) 性質，所以我們不可以說 "I am being tall" ；相對地，"silly" 具有動態性質，所以與這種性質在一起的動詞可以使用進行式。
這亦可適用於動詞。Two plus two equals four 二加二等於四)。equals 是靜態或狀態詞，所以不能有進行式；我們對這種事情沒辦法作選擇，也無法行使意志。(我們不可以說 "Two plus two is equalling four.") 同樣地，名詞亦可以表現有意志和無意志的性質。是故，"She is being a good worker" (因為他選擇讓自己成為優秀的勞工 -- 這是他自己做出的決定，即意志的行使)，但我們必須這麼說 "She is (不是 is being) an Olympic athlete" (因為一旦她成為選手，她就不必再行使意志使自己成為選手了)。
副詞子句
副詞子句
（一） 在句子裡，相當副詞作用的子句，稱為「副詞子句」。
英文的思考習慣，是把所有表示原因、方法、手段、假設、目的、讓步，
以副詞來表示，通常不放在主要子句中，而習慣上放在句子的前面或最後
（二） 引導「副詞子句」的連接詞有：wh~, how, whenever, while, as, since, till, until, after, as long as, as often as, as soon as, the moment that, no sooner …..than, by the time, any time, wherever, if, unless, in case, provided that, suppose that, on condition that, so that, once, because, now that, so that, though, although, even if, even though, whether等。
（三） 依其表達功能，有下例九種：
(1) 時間：i) when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since
ii) as long as, as soon as, by the time, every time, the first time
iii) the moment, the instant, the minute, hardly ( scarcely)—when ( before), no sooner --- than
iiii) now ( that) , once, whenever, immediately, directly
I was working when you telephoned.
Since 1973 , the price has risen very little.
I have been wearing glassed , since I was nine.
Mary saw Bill when he passed by the window.
John was not shocked until he saw the sick child.
No sooner had he graduated from the colleague than he found a job in an export company.
Hardly had he completed his work when he went home.
(2) 地方：where, wherever, whence, whither
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Mary followed Tom wherever he went.
Helen was told to stay where she was.
Don't ask me whence I came.﹝不要問我從哪裡來。﹞
A rudder guides the ship whither it wills.
﹝指導員引導船往它要到的地方去。﹞
(3) 狀態： (Adverb Clause of Manner)
i) as, as if, as though
ii) so that, such that, in such a way… that,
iii) in that
Do as I have told you.
David did his work as he was told.
Paul ran as if a mad dog was chasing him.
In some cities of the United States, schools are such
dangerous places that students carry knives and guns
to class.
In some cities of the United States, schools are so
dangerous that students carry knives and guns
to class.
(4) 原因或理由： i) because, since, as, for
ii)seeing that, being that, now that
iii) in that
As it was very cold, I did not go out.
Kevin failed in the examination because he was too lazy.
Since Samuel was still a boy, he was not admitted.
John is absent today because he is sick.
= John is absent today in that he is sick.
※ 依表示理由或原因的強度比較：because → since → as → for
(5) 目的： i) so… that, so that, lest, in order that
ii)lest.. should, in case, .. should, for fear that
He works hard so that he may succeed.
We eat so that we may live.
Don’t go near the pier lest you should fall into the water.
Hide it lest he see [【英】should see] it.
(6) 讓步： i) though, although, even if, even though
ii) whether … or not,
iii) no matter how (who, what , whether)
iiii) whatever, however, whoever, whichever, whenever, wherever
Though he is poor, he is honest.
Though Jimmy is young, he is an able executive.
No matter what you say, I will sue him for damages.
(7) 比較：i) as.. as, not so.. as
ii) more ( less )… than
iii) the more ( or .. er), the more ( or..er)
He is as tall as I am.
James works harder than George does.
The more money he has, the more he wants.
(8) 條件： i) if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition that
ii) Supposing ( granting, assuming) that, provided ( granted) that
If you don’t work hard, you will fail.
I shall come if Linda also comes.
The match will be played tomorrow if it stops raining now.
(9) 結果：so--- that, such—that, so that, so
He worked so hard that he succeeded.
He ran so quickly that Alice could not catch up.
Rose sang with such a beautiful voice that the audience was completely absorbed in the music.
(10) 限制: Adverb Clause of Restriction
i) as far as, so far as
ii) in that
I'll help you as far as I can. 我將盡我所能幫助你。
So far as ability is concerned, he is inferior to his brother.
就能力而言, 他劣於它的兄弟.
Latin differs from other languages in that it is not spoken.
拉丁語異於其他語言 沒有被談及
The commutation of a criminal’s sentence differs from a pardon in that it reduces the terms of punishment rather than excuses the criminal completely.
[ ] 減刑 sentence 宣判;課刑 pardon 特赦
criminal adj.犯罪的 n. 罪犯[C]
副詞子句與逗點的關係
1) 副詞子句在前面時, 子句後面有逗點
Even when binoculars are used to observe Saturn, the planet’s moons are invisible.
[ ] 雙筒望遠鏡 moon (行星的)衛星
2) 副詞子句在主詞與動詞之中, 是 插入法時, 前後各有一個逗點
The gorilla, while not as curious as the chimpanzee, shows more
Persistence and memory retention in solving a problem.
1. Chimpanzee 非洲黑猩猩 [ ] , gorilla 大猩猩
2. [ ]堅持;固執 3. [ ]保留;保持, 記憶力
3) 副詞子句在後時, 有時有逗點, 有時沒有
Bronze does not bend with use or grow brittle quickly, as copper does.
[ ]青銅[U] copper 銅[U] [ ]易碎的;易損壞的
The wallflower is so called because its weak stems often grow on walls and along stony cliffs for support.
4) so that, such that , as…. As, more (…er ) …. than,
in order that , in that 都在中間, 與主句之間無逗點
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Rubber can be made so elastic that it will stretch more than nine times its normal length.
[ ] 有彈性的
副詞子句的省略 Elliptical Adverb Clause [ l]
大部分的副詞子句不能省略, 只有 表比較的副詞子句 及其他副詞子句可以省略.
A) 表比較的副詞子句
A-1 less , more + ( adj, adv or participial) ….+ than
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
Donna was elected to be the board when he was 24 years old.
= Donna was elected to be the board when 24 years old.
A-2 as + ( adj, adv or participial) + as
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
We can provide you with as many reference books as needed.
= We can provide you with as many reference books as they are needed.
A-3 The more ( less ) + 主詞 或 The adj ( adv) + er, BE 動詞可省略
The higher the animal in the evolutionary chain, the more it can learn and the less it depends on instinct.
= The higher the animal is evolutionary chain, the…
B ) 其他副詞子句的省略, 省去的一定是 Be 動詞, 而省去的主詞必等於
主句的主詞
While traveling in arctic regions, the Aleut construct igloos as temporary winter shelters. = While they are traveling in arctic regions, ….
Football and baseball as played in the United States today are basically modifications of games that originated in England.
= Football and baseball as they are played in ….
EXERCISE:
.1. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe. (A) before ( B) since
2. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats. (A) Before (B) Since
3 You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad. ( A) since ( B) so that
4 更 正以下的 Incomplete sentence
Although Nina wrote stories and poems as a child since her first real successes did not come until she was twenty-three.
提示: Although + S + V = adverb clause
Since + S + V = adverb clause, 改為 main clause
Until + S + V = adverb clause
********************
Complete each adverb clause below with the correct word(s):
1. __________________ he always did well on his English tests, his parents were not surprised that he got an A.
When
Since
2. You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad.
since
so that
3. __________________ he thinks he's smart, he isn't.
Although
After
4. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe.
before
since
5. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats.
Before
Since
6. ________________ I came to this country, I didn't speak a word of English!
Before
Since
7. I'll let you know ________________ I come back.
because
after
8. He doesn't understand ________________ he doesn't speak French very well.
so that
because
9. He spoke slowly ________________ she would understand.
because
so that
10. ________________ you stop crying, I'll buy you an ice cream.
If
Since
答案: 1. since 2 so that 3 although 4 before 5 since
6 before 7 after 8 because 9 so that 10 if
*********************************
Recognize an adverb clause when you see one.
An adverb clause will meet three requirements.
First, it will contain a subject and verb.
You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?
Read these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.
******************************
Dependent clauses can function as adverbs. In this case, they are called adverb clauses. (Bet I didn't surprise you with that one.) An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb. As with regular old garden-variety adverbs, an adverb clause answers these questions:
Where?
Why?
When?
To what extent?
Under what condition?
In what manner?
How often?
***********************
Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn't swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn't swim.
Although he isn't interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn't interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
You must practice if you want to write well.
****************************************************
PART I: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she visited many friends.
She visited many friends when she was in Miami.
When she was in Miami: is an adverb clause.
She visited many friends: Independent clause.
An adverb clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause, a
comma is used to separate the clauses.
When the adverb clause follows, usually no comma is used.
Examples:
Because she wanted to visit her friends, she went to Miami.
She went to Miami because she wanted to visit her friends.
Like when, because introduces an adverb clause.
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are
called subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time (that), whenever, since,
until, as soon as, once, as so long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as, inasmuch as,
so (that), in order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that),
Provided (that), in case (that), in the event (that).
2.Time relationships with adverb clauses.
Examples:
After she (had) came, she turned on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned on the radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense while the
independent clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As, while = during this time.
By the time he came, she had already listened the news.
By the time he comes, she will listen the news.
By the time = one event is completed before another event.
She listens to the radio whenever he comes.
Whenever = every time when
She stayed at home until he came.
Until = till = to that time and then no longer.
She hasn listened to the radio since he came.
Since = from that time to the present.
As soon as he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
Once he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
As soon as = once = when one event happens, another
Event happens soon afterwards.
He won come as long as she smokes.
He will never come so long as she doesn call him.
As long as = so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end.
3.Cause and effect relationships with adverb clauses.
Because:
Examples:
Because he wanted to visit his friends, he went to Miami.
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
Since:
Examples:
Since she never heard about cloning, she decided to not speak about it.
Since = because
Now that:
Now that he has a lot of money, he can afford a new computer.
Now that = because now. It is used for present and future situations.
As:
As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
As = because
As/so long as:
As long as he works for this company, he can learn anything.
As/so long as = because
Inasmuch as (very formal):
Inasmuch as anybody is responsible, the situation becomes worse and worse.
Inasmuch as = because
Part II: Other Ways of Showing Cause and Effect Relationships:
1. Such ?that and so ?that:
Such ?that encloses a modified noun:
Such + adjective +noun + that
So ?that encloses an adjective or adverb:
So + adjective + that
So + adverb + that
Examples:
Because the exam was easy, they could pass it. (1)
It was such easy exam that they could pass it. (2)
The exam was so easy that they could pass it. (3)
(1), (2) and (3) have the same meaning.
So ?that is used with many, few, much and little.
Examples:
They worked so hard that they passed the exam.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
He had so much time that he went to hike.
They have so little work to do that they share it.
He has so few books that he wants to buy some.
Sometimes in speaking, that is omitted.
The exam was so easy that I could pass it.
I had so much time that I went to hike.
2.Using n order to?
In order to = to. It is used to express purpose.
It answers the question hy?
Examples:
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
He went to Miami (in order) to visit his friends.
Don use for with a verb to express purpose. Sometimes
we use for to express purpose but with a noun.
He went to Miami for business.
3. Using: So hat:
So that = in order to
So that = in order that.
So that + can:
So that is often used rather in order to when the idea of ability
is being expressed.
Examples:
He is going to make a registration in order to be able to take courses.
He is going to make a registration so (that) he can take courses.
So that + could:
Could is used after so that in past sentences.
Examples:
He repaired his car in order to enable his friend to use it.
He repaired his car so (that) his friend could use it.
May and might may also be used after that, but are not as
common as can and could.
So that + will:
The use of will after so that gives the idea that someone does
something in order to make sure that something else is
the result.
Examples:
She fill her car up in order to make sure that she will not run
out of gaz during her trip across The Nevada desert.
She fills her car up so (that) she will not run out of gaz
during her trip across The Nevada desert.
So that would:
Would is used in past tense.
Examples:
Last week, he early left his car in the garage in order to make sure
that it would be ready by eleven.
Last week, he left leaves his car in the garage so (that) it would
be ready by eleven.
4.Using: ecause of?and ue to?
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Due to her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because is an adverb. It introduces an adverb clause. It is followed by
a subject and verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions. They are followed by a
noun object.
Sometimes, usually, in more formal writing, due to is followed by a
noun clause introduced by the fact that.
Due to the fact that she was sick, she didn come to attend
the speech.
5. Using herefore?
Examples:
He passed his exams because he worked very hard.
Therefore is called a transition (or conjunctive adverb)
He worked very hard. Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He passed his exams, therefore.
A semicolon may be used instead a period:
He worked very hard; therefore, he passed his exams.
Consequently is also a transition and has the same meaning
as therefore:
He worked very hard. Consequently, he passed his exams.
A transition is used with the second sentence of a pair. It
shows the relationship of the second idea to the first idea.
A transition is movable within the second sentence.
6. Punctuations:
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because she was sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition:
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because of her sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject and verb.
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase
precedes the subject and verb of the independent clause.
Conjunction:
She was sick, so she didn come to attend the speech.
A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.
Transition:
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams, therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the
two dependent clauses. A comma may not be used to separate the clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.
PART III: Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
1.Changing time clauses to modifying phrases:
Some adverb clauses may be changed to modifying phrases. The way is
the same as changing adjective clauses:
Omit the subject and the be form of the verb of the
dependant clause:
Adverb clause:
While she was going home, she runs into a friend.
Modifying phrase:
While going home, she runs into a friend.
If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing:
Adverb clause: Before he came, he called us.
Modifying phrase: Before coming, he called us.
While he was reading a book, she knocks at the door.
This adverb clause cannot be changed to a modifying clause
because the two clauses have different subjects.
While Frank was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, Frank felt very upset.
When Safia was arrived at home, she began to call on her daughter.
When arrived at home, Safia began to call on her daughter.
When the adverb clause is changed to a modifying phrase, the noun in
the adverb clause becomes the subject of the independent clause.
2. Expressing the idea of uring the same time?in modifying phrases:
Examples:
While he was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, he felt very upset.
Reading, he felt very upset.
Going home, she saw an ancient car on the sidewalk.
Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing phrase at the beginning of the
sentence gives the same meaning (= during the same time)
3. Expressing cause and effect relationships in modifying phrases:
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is omitted, but
the resulting phrase expresses a cause and effect relationship.
Because he worked, he didn come to attend the speech.
Working, he didn come to attend the speech.
Often an -ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the
meaning of ecause?
Because she has moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of because, but
also of before.
Because he was unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Being unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
The form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. The
use of being makes the cause and effect relationship clear.
（一） 在句子裡，相當副詞作用的子句，稱為「副詞子句」。
英文的思考習慣，是把所有表示原因、方法、手段、假設、目的、讓步，
以副詞來表示，通常不放在主要子句中，而習慣上放在句子的前面或最後
（二） 引導「副詞子句」的連接詞有：wh~, how, whenever, while, as, since, till, until, after, as long as, as often as, as soon as, the moment that, no sooner …..than, by the time, any time, wherever, if, unless, in case, provided that, suppose that, on condition that, so that, once, because, now that, so that, though, although, even if, even though, whether等。
（三） 依其表達功能，有下例九種：
(1) 時間：i) when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since
ii) as long as, as soon as, by the time, every time, the first time
iii) the moment, the instant, the minute, hardly ( scarcely)—when ( before), no sooner --- than
iiii) now ( that) , once, whenever, immediately, directly
I was working when you telephoned.
Since 1973 , the price has risen very little.
I have been wearing glassed , since I was nine.
Mary saw Bill when he passed by the window.
John was not shocked until he saw the sick child.
No sooner had he graduated from the colleague than he found a job in an export company.
Hardly had he completed his work when he went home.
(2) 地方：where, wherever, whence, whither
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Mary followed Tom wherever he went.
Helen was told to stay where she was.
Don't ask me whence I came.﹝不要問我從哪裡來。﹞
A rudder guides the ship whither it wills.
﹝指導員引導船往它要到的地方去。﹞
(3) 狀態： (Adverb Clause of Manner)
i) as, as if, as though
ii) so that, such that, in such a way… that,
iii) in that
Do as I have told you.
David did his work as he was told.
Paul ran as if a mad dog was chasing him.
In some cities of the United States, schools are such
dangerous places that students carry knives and guns
to class.
In some cities of the United States, schools are so
dangerous that students carry knives and guns
to class.
(4) 原因或理由： i) because, since, as, for
ii)seeing that, being that, now that
iii) in that
As it was very cold, I did not go out.
Kevin failed in the examination because he was too lazy.
Since Samuel was still a boy, he was not admitted.
John is absent today because he is sick.
= John is absent today in that he is sick.
※ 依表示理由或原因的強度比較：because → since → as → for
(5) 目的： i) so… that, so that, lest, in order that
ii)lest.. should, in case, .. should, for fear that
He works hard so that he may succeed.
We eat so that we may live.
Don’t go near the pier lest you should fall into the water.
Hide it lest he see [【英】should see] it.
(6) 讓步： i) though, although, even if, even though
ii) whether … or not,
iii) no matter how (who, what , whether)
iiii) whatever, however, whoever, whichever, whenever, wherever
Though he is poor, he is honest.
Though Jimmy is young, he is an able executive.
No matter what you say, I will sue him for damages.
(7) 比較：i) as.. as, not so.. as
ii) more ( less )… than
iii) the more ( or .. er), the more ( or..er)
He is as tall as I am.
James works harder than George does.
The more money he has, the more he wants.
(8) 條件： i) if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition that
ii) Supposing ( granting, assuming) that, provided ( granted) that
If you don’t work hard, you will fail.
I shall come if Linda also comes.
The match will be played tomorrow if it stops raining now.
(9) 結果：so--- that, such—that, so that, so
He worked so hard that he succeeded.
He ran so quickly that Alice could not catch up.
Rose sang with such a beautiful voice that the audience was completely absorbed in the music.
(10) 限制: Adverb Clause of Restriction
i) as far as, so far as
ii) in that
I'll help you as far as I can. 我將盡我所能幫助你。
So far as ability is concerned, he is inferior to his brother.
就能力而言, 他劣於它的兄弟.
Latin differs from other languages in that it is not spoken.
拉丁語異於其他語言 沒有被談及
The commutation of a criminal’s sentence differs from a pardon in that it reduces the terms of punishment rather than excuses the criminal completely.
[ ] 減刑 sentence 宣判;課刑 pardon 特赦
criminal adj.犯罪的 n. 罪犯[C]
副詞子句與逗點的關係
1) 副詞子句在前面時, 子句後面有逗點
Even when binoculars are used to observe Saturn, the planet’s moons are invisible.
[ ] 雙筒望遠鏡 moon (行星的)衛星
2) 副詞子句在主詞與動詞之中, 是 插入法時, 前後各有一個逗點
The gorilla, while not as curious as the chimpanzee, shows more
Persistence and memory retention in solving a problem.
1. Chimpanzee 非洲黑猩猩 [ ] , gorilla 大猩猩
2. [ ]堅持;固執 3. [ ]保留;保持, 記憶力
3) 副詞子句在後時, 有時有逗點, 有時沒有
Bronze does not bend with use or grow brittle quickly, as copper does.
[ ]青銅[U] copper 銅[U] [ ]易碎的;易損壞的
The wallflower is so called because its weak stems often grow on walls and along stony cliffs for support.
4) so that, such that , as…. As, more (…er ) …. than,
in order that , in that 都在中間, 與主句之間無逗點
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Rubber can be made so elastic that it will stretch more than nine times its normal length.
[ ] 有彈性的
副詞子句的省略 Elliptical Adverb Clause [ l]
大部分的副詞子句不能省略, 只有 表比較的副詞子句 及其他副詞子句可以省略.
A) 表比較的副詞子句
A-1 less , more + ( adj, adv or participial) ….+ than
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
Donna was elected to be the board when he was 24 years old.
= Donna was elected to be the board when 24 years old.
A-2 as + ( adj, adv or participial) + as
省略方式: i) + 主詞( 省去動詞)
ii) + 主詞+ be ( do, does, did, 助動詞 )
iii) + ( 省去主詞 & 動詞)
iiii)+ 倒裝句
We can provide you with as many reference books as needed.
= We can provide you with as many reference books as they are needed.
A-3 The more ( less ) + 主詞 或 The adj ( adv) + er, BE 動詞可省略
The higher the animal in the evolutionary chain, the more it can learn and the less it depends on instinct.
= The higher the animal is evolutionary chain, the…
B ) 其他副詞子句的省略, 省去的一定是 Be 動詞, 而省去的主詞必等於
主句的主詞
While traveling in arctic regions, the Aleut construct igloos as temporary winter shelters. = While they are traveling in arctic regions, ….
Football and baseball as played in the United States today are basically modifications of games that originated in England.
= Football and baseball as they are played in ….
EXERCISE:
.1. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe. (A) before ( B) since
2. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats. (A) Before (B) Since
3 You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad. ( A) since ( B) so that
4 更 正以下的 Incomplete sentence
Although Nina wrote stories and poems as a child since her first real successes did not come until she was twenty-three.
提示: Although + S + V = adverb clause
Since + S + V = adverb clause, 改為 main clause
Until + S + V = adverb clause
********************
Complete each adverb clause below with the correct word(s):
1. __________________ he always did well on his English tests, his parents were not surprised that he got an A.
When
Since
2. You should keep the milk in the refrigerator, __________________ it doesn't go bad.
since
so that
3. __________________ he thinks he's smart, he isn't.
Although
After
4. You should say goodbye to your brother ________________ you leave for Europe.
before
since
5. ________________ my father has high blood pressure, he has to watch what he eats.
Before
Since
6. ________________ I came to this country, I didn't speak a word of English!
Before
Since
7. I'll let you know ________________ I come back.
because
after
8. He doesn't understand ________________ he doesn't speak French very well.
so that
because
9. He spoke slowly ________________ she would understand.
because
so that
10. ________________ you stop crying, I'll buy you an ice cream.
If
Since
答案: 1. since 2 so that 3 although 4 before 5 since
6 before 7 after 8 because 9 so that 10 if
*********************************
Recognize an adverb clause when you see one.
An adverb clause will meet three requirements.
First, it will contain a subject and verb.
You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?
Read these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.
******************************
Dependent clauses can function as adverbs. In this case, they are called adverb clauses. (Bet I didn't surprise you with that one.) An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb. As with regular old garden-variety adverbs, an adverb clause answers these questions:
Where?
Why?
When?
To what extent?
Under what condition?
In what manner?
How often?
***********************
Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn't swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn't swim.
Although he isn't interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn't interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
You must practice if you want to write well.
****************************************************
PART I: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she visited many friends.
She visited many friends when she was in Miami.
When she was in Miami: is an adverb clause.
She visited many friends: Independent clause.
An adverb clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause, a
comma is used to separate the clauses.
When the adverb clause follows, usually no comma is used.
Examples:
Because she wanted to visit her friends, she went to Miami.
She went to Miami because she wanted to visit her friends.
Like when, because introduces an adverb clause.
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are
called subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time (that), whenever, since,
until, as soon as, once, as so long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as, inasmuch as,
so (that), in order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that),
Provided (that), in case (that), in the event (that).
2.Time relationships with adverb clauses.
Examples:
After she (had) came, she turned on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned on the radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense while the
independent clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
As, while = during this time.
By the time he came, she had already listened the news.
By the time he comes, she will listen the news.
By the time = one event is completed before another event.
She listens to the radio whenever he comes.
Whenever = every time when
She stayed at home until he came.
Until = till = to that time and then no longer.
She hasn listened to the radio since he came.
Since = from that time to the present.
As soon as he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
Once he knocks at the door, she will turn off the radio.
As soon as = once = when one event happens, another
Event happens soon afterwards.
He won come as long as she smokes.
He will never come so long as she doesn call him.
As long as = so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end.
3.Cause and effect relationships with adverb clauses.
Because:
Examples:
Because he wanted to visit his friends, he went to Miami.
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
Since:
Examples:
Since she never heard about cloning, she decided to not speak about it.
Since = because
Now that:
Now that he has a lot of money, he can afford a new computer.
Now that = because now. It is used for present and future situations.
As:
As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
As = because
As/so long as:
As long as he works for this company, he can learn anything.
As/so long as = because
Inasmuch as (very formal):
Inasmuch as anybody is responsible, the situation becomes worse and worse.
Inasmuch as = because
Part II: Other Ways of Showing Cause and Effect Relationships:
1. Such ?that and so ?that:
Such ?that encloses a modified noun:
Such + adjective +noun + that
So ?that encloses an adjective or adverb:
So + adjective + that
So + adverb + that
Examples:
Because the exam was easy, they could pass it. (1)
It was such easy exam that they could pass it. (2)
The exam was so easy that they could pass it. (3)
(1), (2) and (3) have the same meaning.
So ?that is used with many, few, much and little.
Examples:
They worked so hard that they passed the exam.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
He had so much time that he went to hike.
They have so little work to do that they share it.
He has so few books that he wants to buy some.
Sometimes in speaking, that is omitted.
The exam was so easy that I could pass it.
I had so much time that I went to hike.
2.Using n order to?
In order to = to. It is used to express purpose.
It answers the question hy?
Examples:
He went to Miami because he wanted to visit his friends.
He went to Miami (in order) to visit his friends.
Don use for with a verb to express purpose. Sometimes
we use for to express purpose but with a noun.
He went to Miami for business.
3. Using: So hat:
So that = in order to
So that = in order that.
So that + can:
So that is often used rather in order to when the idea of ability
is being expressed.
Examples:
He is going to make a registration in order to be able to take courses.
He is going to make a registration so (that) he can take courses.
So that + could:
Could is used after so that in past sentences.
Examples:
He repaired his car in order to enable his friend to use it.
He repaired his car so (that) his friend could use it.
May and might may also be used after that, but are not as
common as can and could.
So that + will:
The use of will after so that gives the idea that someone does
something in order to make sure that something else is
the result.
Examples:
She fill her car up in order to make sure that she will not run
out of gaz during her trip across The Nevada desert.
She fills her car up so (that) she will not run out of gaz
during her trip across The Nevada desert.
So that would:
Would is used in past tense.
Examples:
Last week, he early left his car in the garage in order to make sure
that it would be ready by eleven.
Last week, he left leaves his car in the garage so (that) it would
be ready by eleven.
4.Using: ecause of?and ue to?
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Due to her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
Because is an adverb. It introduces an adverb clause. It is followed by
a subject and verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions. They are followed by a
noun object.
Sometimes, usually, in more formal writing, due to is followed by a
noun clause introduced by the fact that.
Due to the fact that she was sick, she didn come to attend
the speech.
5. Using herefore?
Examples:
He passed his exams because he worked very hard.
Therefore is called a transition (or conjunctive adverb)
He worked very hard. Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He passed his exams, therefore.
A semicolon may be used instead a period:
He worked very hard; therefore, he passed his exams.
Consequently is also a transition and has the same meaning
as therefore:
He worked very hard. Consequently, he passed his exams.
A transition is used with the second sentence of a pair. It
shows the relationship of the second idea to the first idea.
A transition is movable within the second sentence.
6. Punctuations:
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because she was sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition:
Because of her sickness, she didn come to attend the speech.
She didn come to attend the speech because of her sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject and verb.
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase
precedes the subject and verb of the independent clause.
Conjunction:
She was sick, so she didn come to attend the speech.
A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.
Transition:
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams, therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the
two dependent clauses. A comma may not be used to separate the clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.
PART III: Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
1.Changing time clauses to modifying phrases:
Some adverb clauses may be changed to modifying phrases. The way is
the same as changing adjective clauses:
Omit the subject and the be form of the verb of the
dependant clause:
Adverb clause:
While she was going home, she runs into a friend.
Modifying phrase:
While going home, she runs into a friend.
If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing:
Adverb clause: Before he came, he called us.
Modifying phrase: Before coming, he called us.
While he was reading a book, she knocks at the door.
This adverb clause cannot be changed to a modifying clause
because the two clauses have different subjects.
While Frank was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, Frank felt very upset.
When Safia was arrived at home, she began to call on her daughter.
When arrived at home, Safia began to call on her daughter.
When the adverb clause is changed to a modifying phrase, the noun in
the adverb clause becomes the subject of the independent clause.
2. Expressing the idea of uring the same time?in modifying phrases:
Examples:
While he was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, he felt very upset.
Reading, he felt very upset.
Going home, she saw an ancient car on the sidewalk.
Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing phrase at the beginning of the
sentence gives the same meaning (= during the same time)
3. Expressing cause and effect relationships in modifying phrases:
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is omitted, but
the resulting phrase expresses a cause and effect relationship.
Because he worked, he didn come to attend the speech.
Working, he didn come to attend the speech.
Often an -ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the
meaning of ecause?
Because she has moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having moved, she doesn remember the way to the market.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of because, but
also of before.
Because he was unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Being unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
The form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. The
use of being makes the cause and effect relationship clear.
斜體字與加底線
Using Italics and Underlining
我們使用斜體字及加底線字來使句子中的某些字與其他字有所區別。斜體字與加底線字都是傳達相同的訊息；所以，在同一句子內同時使用斜體字和加底線字是很奇怪的事，而在一斜體字上又加底線或者將一加底線字再用斜體，是一項不智的作法。由於文書處理器及印表機越來越精密，而它們印出來的文章越來越具有專業的面貌，斜體字已被越來越多的英語教師所接受。然而，目前仍有一些 LKK 的英語教師和文法學者堅持只用加底線字，這可能是因為他們求學的時代，正是斜體字在技術上有困難，而且實際上無法閱讀的時代。職是之故，學生在使用斜體字之前最好還是先問問你的老師和教授。在本頁中，我們將只使用斜體字，但它們應被視為可與加底線字互換。
這些規則和建議並不適用於新聞寫作；新聞寫作對此事有其自己的一套規範。
斜體字不包括與斜體字相鄰的標點符號 (例如，句子結束符號及括弧)，除非那些標點符號被視為斜體字的一部份："Have you read Stephen King's Pet Semetary? 再者，切勿將用來產生某一名稱或標題的複數的「省略符號加 -s」變成斜體："What is the Courant 's position on this issue?" 你必須特別注意你所用的文書處理軟體對此事的處理方式，因為大多數的文書處理器都會試著將整個字變成斜體。
名稱與標題
一般而言，我們以斜體字來表示可以獨立存在的事物的名稱。因此，書名，長篇小說的名稱，長詩的題名，劇本的名稱，報紙雜誌的名稱以斜體字來表示，而短篇小說，短詩，歌名，小品文，報章雜誌的文章，論文，電視節目的一齣單元等，則以雙引號括之。
在書寫報紙的名稱時，the 這個字不用斜體，即使它是名稱的一部份 (the New York Times)；而報紙發行所在的城市的名稱也不用斜體，除非該城市名係報紙名稱的一部份：the Hartford Courant，但 the London Times。
其他須以斜體字來表示的名稱包括：
雜誌和期刊：Time, U.S. News and World Report, Crazyhorse, Georgia Review
戲劇：Waiting for Godot, Long Day's Journey Into Night
長樂曲：Puccini's Madama Butterfly, Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite (但 "Waltz of the Flowers"), Schubert's Winterreise (但 "Ave Maria")。至於以數目和調 (key) 來命名的樂曲 -- Mozart's Divertimento in D major, Barber's Cello Sonata Op. 6 -- 我們不用斜體，也不加引號。
影片：Slingblade, Shine, The Invisible Man
電視與廣播節目：Dateline, Seinfeld, Fresh Air, Car Talk
藝術作品：the Venus de Milo, Whistler's The Artist's Mother
著名演說：Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Washington's Second Inaugural Address (這項演說的名稱真的就叫做 Second Inaugural Address)
長詩 (長到足以編成一本書)： Longfellow's Evangeline, Milton's Paradise Lost, Whitman's Leaves of Grass
小冊子：New Developments in AIDS Research
長篇大作的聖書的名稱不用斜體：the Bible, the Koran。聖經的章節名稱也不用斜體：Genesis, Revelations, 1 Corinthians。
交通工具的名稱
Challenger
Titanic
Orient Express
U.S.S. Eisenhower (U.S.S. 不可斜體)
H.M.S. Pinafore (當我們談論的是船艦時， H.M.S. 不可斜體。如果我們談論的是音樂劇，那麼它是名稱的一部份：H.M.S. Pinafore.) 註：H.M.S. 是英國皇家海軍戰艦 His (or Her) Majesty's Ship 的縮寫，而 U.S.S. 為美國海軍戰艦 United States Ship 的縮寫。
交通工具的名稱若也是商標，則不用斜體：Ford Explorer, Corvette, Nissan Pathfinder, Boeing 747。
外來語
如果某個外來字或片語已被廣泛使用和理解，因而已成為英語的一部份 -- 如法語 "bon voyage" (再會；一路順風) 或拉丁語 et cetera 的縮寫 "etc." -- 那麼它不用斜體。通常這是個人判斷的問題而且視上下文而定。例如，義大利語 sotto voce (低聲地) 主要將視你的聽眾和你演講或說話的內容而定。
被當做字的字
例句：
The word basically is often unnecessary and should be removed.
There were four and's and one therefore in that last sentence. (注意：用來產生 and 這個被當做字的字的複數的省略符號加 -s 不用斜體。請參見複數來獲得進一步的協助。)
She defines ambiguity in a positive way, as the ability of a word to mean more than one thing at the same time.
基於強調的目的
注意：別過份使用斜體來強調字，否則過不了多久，它就失去了效果，讓人聽起來有如在聽漫畫中的人物講話。
I really don't care what you think! (注意：這個句子中任何一個字都可以斜體字來表示，端視你所要強調的字而定。)
These rules do not apply to newspaper writing. (這些規則不適用於新聞寫作。)
仿聲字 (Words as Reproduced Sounds)
Grrr! went the bear. (但你要說 "the bear growled" 因為 "growled" 是熊真實發出的聲音，而非模仿或複製的聲音。因此，"The bees buzz but go bzzzz"，而 "Dogs bark woof!")
His head hit the stairs, kathunk!
我們使用斜體字及加底線字來使句子中的某些字與其他字有所區別。斜體字與加底線字都是傳達相同的訊息；所以，在同一句子內同時使用斜體字和加底線字是很奇怪的事，而在一斜體字上又加底線或者將一加底線字再用斜體，是一項不智的作法。由於文書處理器及印表機越來越精密，而它們印出來的文章越來越具有專業的面貌，斜體字已被越來越多的英語教師所接受。然而，目前仍有一些 LKK 的英語教師和文法學者堅持只用加底線字，這可能是因為他們求學的時代，正是斜體字在技術上有困難，而且實際上無法閱讀的時代。職是之故，學生在使用斜體字之前最好還是先問問你的老師和教授。在本頁中，我們將只使用斜體字，但它們應被視為可與加底線字互換。
這些規則和建議並不適用於新聞寫作；新聞寫作對此事有其自己的一套規範。
斜體字不包括與斜體字相鄰的標點符號 (例如，句子結束符號及括弧)，除非那些標點符號被視為斜體字的一部份："Have you read Stephen King's Pet Semetary? 再者，切勿將用來產生某一名稱或標題的複數的「省略符號加 -s」變成斜體："What is the Courant 's position on this issue?" 你必須特別注意你所用的文書處理軟體對此事的處理方式，因為大多數的文書處理器都會試著將整個字變成斜體。
名稱與標題
一般而言，我們以斜體字來表示可以獨立存在的事物的名稱。因此，書名，長篇小說的名稱，長詩的題名，劇本的名稱，報紙雜誌的名稱以斜體字來表示，而短篇小說，短詩，歌名，小品文，報章雜誌的文章，論文，電視節目的一齣單元等，則以雙引號括之。
在書寫報紙的名稱時，the 這個字不用斜體，即使它是名稱的一部份 (the New York Times)；而報紙發行所在的城市的名稱也不用斜體，除非該城市名係報紙名稱的一部份：the Hartford Courant，但 the London Times。
其他須以斜體字來表示的名稱包括：
雜誌和期刊：Time, U.S. News and World Report, Crazyhorse, Georgia Review
戲劇：Waiting for Godot, Long Day's Journey Into Night
長樂曲：Puccini's Madama Butterfly, Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite (但 "Waltz of the Flowers"), Schubert's Winterreise (但 "Ave Maria")。至於以數目和調 (key) 來命名的樂曲 -- Mozart's Divertimento in D major, Barber's Cello Sonata Op. 6 -- 我們不用斜體，也不加引號。
影片：Slingblade, Shine, The Invisible Man
電視與廣播節目：Dateline, Seinfeld, Fresh Air, Car Talk
藝術作品：the Venus de Milo, Whistler's The Artist's Mother
著名演說：Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Washington's Second Inaugural Address (這項演說的名稱真的就叫做 Second Inaugural Address)
長詩 (長到足以編成一本書)： Longfellow's Evangeline, Milton's Paradise Lost, Whitman's Leaves of Grass
小冊子：New Developments in AIDS Research
長篇大作的聖書的名稱不用斜體：the Bible, the Koran。聖經的章節名稱也不用斜體：Genesis, Revelations, 1 Corinthians。
交通工具的名稱
Challenger
Titanic
Orient Express
U.S.S. Eisenhower (U.S.S. 不可斜體)
H.M.S. Pinafore (當我們談論的是船艦時， H.M.S. 不可斜體。如果我們談論的是音樂劇，那麼它是名稱的一部份：H.M.S. Pinafore.) 註：H.M.S. 是英國皇家海軍戰艦 His (or Her) Majesty's Ship 的縮寫，而 U.S.S. 為美國海軍戰艦 United States Ship 的縮寫。
交通工具的名稱若也是商標，則不用斜體：Ford Explorer, Corvette, Nissan Pathfinder, Boeing 747。
外來語
如果某個外來字或片語已被廣泛使用和理解，因而已成為英語的一部份 -- 如法語 "bon voyage" (再會；一路順風) 或拉丁語 et cetera 的縮寫 "etc." -- 那麼它不用斜體。通常這是個人判斷的問題而且視上下文而定。例如，義大利語 sotto voce (低聲地) 主要將視你的聽眾和你演講或說話的內容而定。
被當做字的字
例句：
The word basically is often unnecessary and should be removed.
There were four and's and one therefore in that last sentence. (注意：用來產生 and 這個被當做字的字的複數的省略符號加 -s 不用斜體。請參見複數來獲得進一步的協助。)
She defines ambiguity in a positive way, as the ability of a word to mean more than one thing at the same time.
基於強調的目的
注意：別過份使用斜體來強調字，否則過不了多久，它就失去了效果，讓人聽起來有如在聽漫畫中的人物講話。
I really don't care what you think! (注意：這個句子中任何一個字都可以斜體字來表示，端視你所要強調的字而定。)
These rules do not apply to newspaper writing. (這些規則不適用於新聞寫作。)
仿聲字 (Words as Reproduced Sounds)
Grrr! went the bear. (但你要說 "the bear growled" 因為 "growled" 是熊真實發出的聲音，而非模仿或複製的聲音。因此，"The bees buzz but go bzzzz"，而 "Dogs bark woof!")
His head hit the stairs, kathunk!
名詞子句
名詞子句
名詞子句與名 詞用法相同, 也用作主詞或受詞.
1. What he said is interesting.
2. I’ve heard what he said.
3. What she said surprised me.
引導名詞子句的字: (1) when, where, why, how, who, whom, what , which, whose
(2) whether, if, whatever, whoever
(3) that
練習
1. Why did they leave the country ?
→
________________________________ is a secret .
2. What are we doing in class?
→
________________________________ is easy.
A) 以疑問詞開頭的名詞子句
I don’t know where she lives.
Do you know when they arrive?
I wonder who is at the door.
B) 以 WHETHER 或 IF 開頭
I don’t’ know whether he will come.
I wonder if she will come or not.= I wonder whether she will come or not.
= I wonder or not she will come.
C) 後接 不定詞 的疑問句
I don’t know what I should do. = I don’t’ know what to do.
Pam can’t decide whether she should go or stay home.
= Pam can’t decide whether to go or stay home.
1
D) 以 That 開頭的名詞子句
1. We know that the world is round.
( that 本身沒意義, 僅作句首標誌, 可略; That 引導的子句當受詞時,that 可省略)
2. That she doesn’t understand spleen English is obvious. ( that 不可省略)
= It is obvious that she doesn’t understand spoken English.
( That 引導的子句當名詞時, that 不可省略.)
E. 名詞子句中假設t she not go to the concernt.語氣的使用--- 假設語氣的動詞只用原型動詞 ( 這種句子通常強調重要性 )
1. The teacher demands that we be on time.
2. I insisted that he pay me the money.
3. I recommended that she not to go to the concert.
4. It is important that they be told the truth.
5. I suggested that she see a doctor.
** 這種句型美國較常見. 英國是 should + 原型動詞 **
練習
1. Mr. Adams insists that we ____ careful in our writing.
2. They requested that we not ______ after midnight.
3. It is essential that I (meet)__________ you tomorrow.
4. She asked that we _______ sure to lock the door behind us.
5. Her advisor recommended that she ( take) _____ five courses.
F. 含 – EVER 字詞的使用
1. Whoever wants to come is welcome.
=( Anyone who wants to come is welcome)
2. He makes friends easily with who(m)ever he meets.
** 在美國很少用 whomever, 在英國只 用whoever.
3. He always says whatever comes into his mind.
= He always says anything that comes into his mind.
4. You may leave whenever you wish.
= You may leave at any time that you wish.
2
5.We can watch whichever program you prefer.
6. She can go wherever she wants to go.
7. The students may dress however they please.
練習
Alice does ______ she wants to do, goes _____ she wants to go , gets up
_________ she wants to get up, makes friends with ______ she meets,
and dresses ______ she pleases.
名詞子句與名 詞用法相同, 也用作主詞或受詞.
1. What he said is interesting.
2. I’ve heard what he said.
3. What she said surprised me.
引導名詞子句的字: (1) when, where, why, how, who, whom, what , which, whose
(2) whether, if, whatever, whoever
(3) that
練習
1. Why did they leave the country ?
→
________________________________ is a secret .
2. What are we doing in class?
→
________________________________ is easy.
A) 以疑問詞開頭的名詞子句
I don’t know where she lives.
Do you know when they arrive?
I wonder who is at the door.
B) 以 WHETHER 或 IF 開頭
I don’t’ know whether he will come.
I wonder if she will come or not.= I wonder whether she will come or not.
= I wonder or not she will come.
C) 後接 不定詞 的疑問句
I don’t know what I should do. = I don’t’ know what to do.
Pam can’t decide whether she should go or stay home.
= Pam can’t decide whether to go or stay home.
1
D) 以 That 開頭的名詞子句
1. We know that the world is round.
( that 本身沒意義, 僅作句首標誌, 可略; That 引導的子句當受詞時,that 可省略)
2. That she doesn’t understand spleen English is obvious. ( that 不可省略)
= It is obvious that she doesn’t understand spoken English.
( That 引導的子句當名詞時, that 不可省略.)
E. 名詞子句中假設t she not go to the concernt.語氣的使用--- 假設語氣的動詞只用原型動詞 ( 這種句子通常強調重要性 )
1. The teacher demands that we be on time.
2. I insisted that he pay me the money.
3. I recommended that she not to go to the concert.
4. It is important that they be told the truth.
5. I suggested that she see a doctor.
** 這種句型美國較常見. 英國是 should + 原型動詞 **
練習
1. Mr. Adams insists that we ____ careful in our writing.
2. They requested that we not ______ after midnight.
3. It is essential that I (meet)__________ you tomorrow.
4. She asked that we _______ sure to lock the door behind us.
5. Her advisor recommended that she ( take) _____ five courses.
F. 含 – EVER 字詞的使用
1. Whoever wants to come is welcome.
=( Anyone who wants to come is welcome)
2. He makes friends easily with who(m)ever he meets.
** 在美國很少用 whomever, 在英國只 用whoever.
3. He always says whatever comes into his mind.
= He always says anything that comes into his mind.
4. You may leave whenever you wish.
= You may leave at any time that you wish.
2
5.We can watch whichever program you prefer.
6. She can go wherever she wants to go.
7. The students may dress however they please.
練習
Alice does ______ she wants to do, goes _____ she wants to go , gets up
_________ she wants to get up, makes friends with ______ she meets,
and dresses ______ she pleases.
形容詞子句
形容詞子句
( 關係子句 )
( A) 作主詞用的代名詞 : WHO , WHICH , THAT
I thanked the woman. She helped me.
→ I thanked the woman who helped me.
( I thanked the woman that helped me)
The book is mine. It is on the table.
→ The book which is on the table is mine.
(The book that is on the table is mine.)
練習
1. I saw the man. He closed the door.
→
2. The girl is happy. She won the race.
→
3. The student is from China. He sits next to me.
→
4. We are studying sentences. They contains adjective clauses.
→
(B) 作受詞用的代名詞 : WHO(M) ,WHICH, THAT
The man was Mr. Jones.
I saw him.
→ The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones.
(The man that I saw was Mr. Jones)
( The man I saw was Mr. Jones. 受詞子句的代名詞可以省略)
The movie wasn’t very good.
We saw it last night.
→ The movie which we saw last night wasn’t very good.
(The movie that we saw last night wasn’t very good.)
(The movie we saw last night wasn’t very good. 受詞子句的代名詞可省略)
練習
The book was good. I read it.
→
I liked the woman. I met her at the supermarket yesterday.
→
The people were very nice. We visited them last week.
→
I liked the essay. You wrote it.
→
*** 代名詞當 介詞 得受詞時, 只能用 whom 或 which, 不可直接使用
who 跟 that. ***
例如:
She is the woman. I told you about her.
→ She is the woman about whom I told you. ( 這是 極為 正式 的英文)
日常用語, 常會把 介詞在在 主詞及 動詞後面, 不放在 代名詞前面,
這樣 就會使用 who, that 或省略 代名詞.
She is the woman who I told you about.
She is the woman that I told you about
She is the woman I told you about.
C) 所有格代名詞 WHOSE, 不能省略
I know the man. His bicycle was stolen.
→ I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
The student writes well. I read her novel.
→The student whose novel I read writes well.
練習
I apologized to the woman. I spilled her coffee.
→
The man called the police. His wallet was stolen.
→
The man poured a glass of water on his face. His beard caught on fire when
he lit a cigarette.
→
D) Where 引導的形容詞 子句
The building is very old. He lives there ( in the building).
→ The building where he lives is very old.
** 若不用 where 引導, 可用下 列方式
1. The building in which he lives is very old.
2. The building which he lives in is very old.
3. The building that he lives in is very old.
4. The building he lives in is very old.
練習
The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there ( in the city)
→
3
That is the restaurant. I will meet you there ( at the restaurant)
→
That is the drawer. I keep my jewelry there. ( In that drawer)
→
E) When 引導的形容詞子句
I will never forget the day. I met you then ( on that day.)
→ I will never forget the day when I met you then.
*** 若沒以 when 引導, 可改成 :
1. I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
2. I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
3. I’ll never forget the day I met you.
練習
Monday is the day. We will come then ( on that day)
→
7:05 is the time. My plane arrives then ( at that time)
→
1960 is the year. The resolution took place then ( in that year)
→
F) 用形容詞子句修飾代名詞
形容詞子句可修飾歐不定代名詞 ( 如: someone, everybody), 受格關
系代名詞( 如 whom, which) 在形容詞子句中常常省略.
a) There is someone ( whom) I want you to meet.
b) Everything he said was pure sonsense.
c) Anybody who wants to come is welcome.
形容詞子句可修飾 the one ( s), 及 those.
d) Paula was the only one I know at the party.
e) Scholarships are available for those who need financial assistance.
形容詞子句 很少用於修飾人稱代名詞, (f)句非常正式, 不常用.
(f) It is I who am responsible.
(g) He who laughs last laughs best.
含 which 的 形容詞子句 也可修飾代名詞 that
(i) We sometimes fear that which we do not understand.
(j) The bread my mother makes is much better thatn that which you
can buy at a store.
練 習:
1. I have a question. There is something ______________.
2. He cannot trust anyone. There’s no one ________________.
3. I’m powerless to help her. There’s nothing ________________.
4. You can believe him. Everything __________________
G 形容詞子句的標點
1. 限定: 需要形容詞子句才能對所修飾的名詞加以指認或 界定時, 不用逗號.
2. 非限定: 對所修飾的名詞僅作補充說明, 用逗號
3. The man { who } I met teaches chemistry.
{ that }
{ 省略}
因為沒有逗號, 形容詞子句可用任何合式的代名詞; 受詞代名詞亦可省略.
4. Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry.
需用逗號 時, 不能用 that( 只能用 who, whom, which, whose, where
& when ) ; 受詞代名詞不可省略.
H. 形容詞子句中表是數量詞語的使用 – 只 有whom, which & whose 可用
1. In my class there are 20 students, most of them are from Far East.
2. He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid
3. The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems was poor
Study habits.
練習:
1. The city has sixteen schools. Two of them are junior colleges.
2. The village has around 200 people. The majority of them are farmers.
I. 名詞 OF WHICH 的用法
We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.
→ We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.
→ We have an antique table whose top has jade inlay.
練習:
1. They own an original Picasso painting. The value of the painting is over a million dollars.
→
2. The genetic engineers are engaged in significant experiments.
The results of the experiments will be published in the Journal of
Science.
→
experiment [ ]試驗
J. 用 WHICH 修是整個句子 ( 主要出現在口語, 不適於正式書面語)
Tom is late. That surprised me.
→ Tom was late, which surprised me.
練習
1. Max isn’t home yet. That worries me.
→
2. Jack was fired from his job. That surprised all of his co-workers.
→
K 形 容詞 子句 簡化為 形容詞片語
The girl who is sitting next to me is Mary.
→ The girl sitting next to me is Mary.
Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
→ Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.
練習
1. I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.
→
2. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.
→
3. The rules that allow public access to wilderness areas need to be
reconsidered.
→
( 關係子句 )
( A) 作主詞用的代名詞 : WHO , WHICH , THAT
I thanked the woman. She helped me.
→ I thanked the woman who helped me.
( I thanked the woman that helped me)
The book is mine. It is on the table.
→ The book which is on the table is mine.
(The book that is on the table is mine.)
練習
1. I saw the man. He closed the door.
→
2. The girl is happy. She won the race.
→
3. The student is from China. He sits next to me.
→
4. We are studying sentences. They contains adjective clauses.
→
(B) 作受詞用的代名詞 : WHO(M) ,WHICH, THAT
The man was Mr. Jones.
I saw him.
→ The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones.
(The man that I saw was Mr. Jones)
( The man I saw was Mr. Jones. 受詞子句的代名詞可以省略)
The movie wasn’t very good.
We saw it last night.
→ The movie which we saw last night wasn’t very good.
(The movie that we saw last night wasn’t very good.)
(The movie we saw last night wasn’t very good. 受詞子句的代名詞可省略)
練習
The book was good. I read it.
→
I liked the woman. I met her at the supermarket yesterday.
→
The people were very nice. We visited them last week.
→
I liked the essay. You wrote it.
→
*** 代名詞當 介詞 得受詞時, 只能用 whom 或 which, 不可直接使用
who 跟 that. ***
例如:
She is the woman. I told you about her.
→ She is the woman about whom I told you. ( 這是 極為 正式 的英文)
日常用語, 常會把 介詞在在 主詞及 動詞後面, 不放在 代名詞前面,
這樣 就會使用 who, that 或省略 代名詞.
She is the woman who I told you about.
She is the woman that I told you about
She is the woman I told you about.
C) 所有格代名詞 WHOSE, 不能省略
I know the man. His bicycle was stolen.
→ I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
The student writes well. I read her novel.
→The student whose novel I read writes well.
練習
I apologized to the woman. I spilled her coffee.
→
The man called the police. His wallet was stolen.
→
The man poured a glass of water on his face. His beard caught on fire when
he lit a cigarette.
→
D) Where 引導的形容詞 子句
The building is very old. He lives there ( in the building).
→ The building where he lives is very old.
** 若不用 where 引導, 可用下 列方式
1. The building in which he lives is very old.
2. The building which he lives in is very old.
3. The building that he lives in is very old.
4. The building he lives in is very old.
練習
The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there ( in the city)
→
3
That is the restaurant. I will meet you there ( at the restaurant)
→
That is the drawer. I keep my jewelry there. ( In that drawer)
→
E) When 引導的形容詞子句
I will never forget the day. I met you then ( on that day.)
→ I will never forget the day when I met you then.
*** 若沒以 when 引導, 可改成 :
1. I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
2. I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
3. I’ll never forget the day I met you.
練習
Monday is the day. We will come then ( on that day)
→
7:05 is the time. My plane arrives then ( at that time)
→
1960 is the year. The resolution took place then ( in that year)
→
F) 用形容詞子句修飾代名詞
形容詞子句可修飾歐不定代名詞 ( 如: someone, everybody), 受格關
系代名詞( 如 whom, which) 在形容詞子句中常常省略.
a) There is someone ( whom) I want you to meet.
b) Everything he said was pure sonsense.
c) Anybody who wants to come is welcome.
形容詞子句可修飾 the one ( s), 及 those.
d) Paula was the only one I know at the party.
e) Scholarships are available for those who need financial assistance.
形容詞子句 很少用於修飾人稱代名詞, (f)句非常正式, 不常用.
(f) It is I who am responsible.
(g) He who laughs last laughs best.
含 which 的 形容詞子句 也可修飾代名詞 that
(i) We sometimes fear that which we do not understand.
(j) The bread my mother makes is much better thatn that which you
can buy at a store.
練 習:
1. I have a question. There is something ______________.
2. He cannot trust anyone. There’s no one ________________.
3. I’m powerless to help her. There’s nothing ________________.
4. You can believe him. Everything __________________
G 形容詞子句的標點
1. 限定: 需要形容詞子句才能對所修飾的名詞加以指認或 界定時, 不用逗號.
2. 非限定: 對所修飾的名詞僅作補充說明, 用逗號
3. The man { who } I met teaches chemistry.
{ that }
{ 省略}
因為沒有逗號, 形容詞子句可用任何合式的代名詞; 受詞代名詞亦可省略.
4. Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry.
需用逗號 時, 不能用 that( 只能用 who, whom, which, whose, where
& when ) ; 受詞代名詞不可省略.
H. 形容詞子句中表是數量詞語的使用 – 只 有whom, which & whose 可用
1. In my class there are 20 students, most of them are from Far East.
2. He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid
3. The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems was poor
Study habits.
練習:
1. The city has sixteen schools. Two of them are junior colleges.
2. The village has around 200 people. The majority of them are farmers.
I. 名詞 OF WHICH 的用法
We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.
→ We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.
→ We have an antique table whose top has jade inlay.
練習:
1. They own an original Picasso painting. The value of the painting is over a million dollars.
→
2. The genetic engineers are engaged in significant experiments.
The results of the experiments will be published in the Journal of
Science.
→
experiment [ ]試驗
J. 用 WHICH 修是整個句子 ( 主要出現在口語, 不適於正式書面語)
Tom is late. That surprised me.
→ Tom was late, which surprised me.
練習
1. Max isn’t home yet. That worries me.
→
2. Jack was fired from his job. That surprised all of his co-workers.
→
K 形 容詞 子句 簡化為 形容詞片語
The girl who is sitting next to me is Mary.
→ The girl sitting next to me is Mary.
Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
→ Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.
練習
1. I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.
→
2. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.
→
3. The rules that allow public access to wilderness areas need to be
reconsidered.
→
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